Zhangjiakou

Coordinates: 40°46′08″N 114°53′10″E / 40.769°N 114.886°E / 40.769; 114.886
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Zhangjiakou
张家口市
Changchiakow, Kalgan
China Standard)
ISO 3166 codeCN-HE-07
Licence plate prefixes冀G
Websitewww.zjk.gov.cn
Zhangjiakou
Hanyu Pinyin
Kālāgàn
Mongolian nameMongolian scriptᠬᠠᠭᠠᠯᠭᠠᠨ

Zhangjiakou (

Xiahuayuan Districts
largely being conurbated had 1,500,000 inhabitants in 2019 on 1,412.7 km2 (545.4 sq mi).

Since ancient times, Zhangjiakou has been a stronghold of military significance and vied for by multiple sides, hence nicknamed the Northern Gate of Beijing. Due to its strategic position on several important transport arteries, it is a critical node for travel between Hebei and

Great Wall of China is located here.[4]

In the south, Zhangjiakou is largely cultivated for agricultural use. In the north, Bashang is a part of the Mongolian plateau and dominated by grasslands. The forest coverage reaches 37%, earning Zhangjiakou the title of National Forest City. According to the Ministry of Environmental Protection, Zhangjiakou has the freshest air and the least PM 2.5 pollution of all Chinese cities north of the Yellow River. Zhangjiakou also possesses 4.6% of China's wind energy resources, and the city ranks second in solar energy use.[5]: 25–30  Zhangjiakou was one of the host cities at the 2022 Winter Olympics.

Names

Zhangjiakou (Chang-chia-k'ou) is written 张家口 in

simplified Chinese and 張家口 in traditional Chinese. It is Zhāngjiākǒu in pinyin, the name meaning "Zhang family pass." Older names for the town in Chinese include Zhāngyuán (張垣), used in the Republican
era.

Zhangjiakou was historically known to Europeans as Kalgan (喀拉干, Kālāgàn) until the mid 20th century. This name derives from the

Classical Mongolian), "Chuulalt haalga" (modern Mongolian) or shorter, , "Qaghalghan" (Classical Mongolian), "Haalgan" (modern Mongolian), which means "the gate" (in the Great Wall). In Manchu, the city is known as
(Imiyangga jase).

Because of its strategic position above and northwest of Beijing, Zhangjiakou has been nicknamed "Beijing's Northern Door".

History

Pre-Qin era

Left image: Huangdi or Yellow Emperor
Right image: Chiyou

There are many paleolithic remains like

Nihewan, Xiaochangliang, and Maquangou located in Guyuan county, which indicated human activities dating back possibly 2 million years ago.[6]

Around 2500 BC, the legendary ancestors of Chinese people, Huangdi, Yandi, and Chiyou used to live in the area of Zhuolu Town, and later fought the Battle of Zhuolu and Battle of Banquan, amalgamating different tribes into a single Huaxia tribe, thus beginning Chinese history.[6]

During

Great Wall in its border extending from Zaoyang (currently northeast of Xuanhua) to Xiangping (currently north of Liaoyang). In 283 BC, King Zhao established Shanggu Commandery.[6]: 15–16  In 265 BC, Li Mu
, a famous general of Zhao, commanded and deployed troops in Dai to protect against Xiongnu. After arriving in Dai, initially Li Mu banned any counterattack against Xiongnu to preserve the strength for years, which however incurred the discontent of King of Zhao. As a result, Li Mu was sacked. Following Zhao troops' defeat later, King of Zhao reinstated Li Mu. Viewing Zhao troops as cowards, Xiongnu grew arrogant and underestimated Zhao's strength. Finally, Li Mu led troops and ambushed Xiongnu, causing hundreds of thousands of casualties and great damage of Xiongnu, thus ensuring decades of peace in Zhao's borderlands.

In 228 BC,

Xi, King of Yan, the combined army, commanded by Crown Prince Dan was defeated at Yishui. In 222 BC, Wang Ben
, a Qin general defeated Yan state and then, attacked Dai. He captured Jia and ended Dai as a state. Jia feared humiliation and committed suicide.

Qin–Han era

During the

Shihuangdi sent Meng Tian, commanding 300,000 troops to defend his empire from Xiongnu's attacks. They spent 10 years connecting the Great Wall of Yan, Qin and Zhao, thus building Great Wall of Qin, the first Great Wall of 10,000 li, its 80-kilometer-long relics currently located in Batou (坝头), or Erdaogou (二道沟) in local slang, to the north of Zhangjiakou downtown area. The southern area of Zhangjiakou was under jurisdiction of Dai Commandery and Shanggu Commandery
.

During the Han dynasty, most part of the area belonged to

Liu Bang established the Han dynasty, he granted Dai and the title of King of Dai to his brother Liu Zhong in 201 BC. One year later, Liu Zhong was defeated by Modu Chanyu of Xiongnu and escaped, thus demoted. In 196 BC, Chen Xi, the chancellor of Zhao, rebelled against the emperor and occupied more than 20 cities soon after. As a result, Liu Bang commanded an army in person from Luoyang. During the war, the empress launched a coup d'état and killed Han Xin, the most important general who helped establish the Han dynasty. With the help of Fan Kuai and Zhou Bo, Liu Bang defeated Chen Xi very soon. Following the rebellion, Liu Bang granted the title of King of Dai to his third son, Liu Heng, later Emperor Wen of Han.[6]
: 17–21 

Expansion of Han dynasty. Wei Qing's campaigns against Xiongnu is shown in red arrows.

Zhangjiakou was a major battleground during

You Prefecture
.

Following the

Qiaodong District), representing Han's management of Wuhuan. Meanwhile, Han also opened Hu Market (胡市) to conduct regular exchanges with Wuhuan in Ningcheng. From 110 AD, Ningcheng also began to manage affairs with Xianbei.[6]
: 21–22 

Jin–Sui era

In 274, Western Jin divided Shanggu Commandery and established Guangning Commandery (廣寧郡) in Xialuo (下洛, in the west of present Zhuolu), which was disestablished during Northern Qi.

During the period known as

Western Jin and since 315, the King of Dai. In 376, Dai was conquered by Former Qin
state.

Former Qin fell into disarray in 383 following its defeat by Jin forces at the

Tuoba Gui, the grandson of Tuoba Shiyijian, the last King of Dai, took the opportunity to reestablish Dai and soon changed its name from Dai to Wei. Initially, Tuoba Gui was a vassal of Later Yan but claimed imperial title in 397 after defeating Murong Bao of Yan in Battle of Canhe Slope. Later, Tuoba Gui was given the title of Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei
.

In 423, in order to defend itself from

: 23 

Tang–Song era

In 645,

Taizong of Tang had a north march in Jiming Mountain (鸡鸣山) during his campaign against Xueyantuo. In 822, Tang established Longmen County (龍門縣份) and Huai'an County (懷安縣), thus the first appearance of Huai’an. In 866. Tang established Xinzhou (新州), the administrative center located to the west of Zhuolu. In 877, Li Keyong, the grandfather of Li Cunxu, later the emperor of Later Tang
, was serving as the deputy commander of the Shatuo troops and stationed in Yuzhou, turning this place into his base for future struggles. In 899, Wuzhou (武州) was established with its administrative center in Xuanhua. Meanwhile, Wende County (文德縣) was established, the administrative center in present Xuanhua.

During the period of Five Dynasties, Zhangjiakou area, like other places in northern China, underwent repeated changes of rules of different dynasties. In 937, in order to enlist the help from

Huailai), Wuzhou (武州), Yuzhou (蔚州) were included. The Sixteen Prefectures held strategic locations in the north and because the Great Wall was across Zhangjiakou area, the cession left China in a vulnerable position against the invasions from the north. In 951, Yelu Ruan, the Emperor Shizong of Liao intended to attack Later Zhou in the south despite the reluctance of many subordinate tribes. While passing Huoshendian (火神淀), the west of Xinzhou, a rebellion broke out and Yelu Gecha (耶律察割) and Yelu Pendu (耶律盆都) assassinated the drunken emperor. The rebellion was put down very soon by Shizong's successor, Yelu Jing, the Emperor Muzong of Liao
.

During the reign of

Xiahuayuan District). Xiao resided there often and enlisted many talent in his war with the Song dynasty
.

In 1168, the Emperor Shizong of Jin traveled to Helihudongchuan (曷里滸東东川). Seeing the fully blossoming yellow flowers, he named the yellow flowers Jinlianhua (金蓮花) and the place became Jinlianchuan (金蓮川; 'River of Golden Lotus').

Yuan–Ming–Qing era

Battle of Yehuling of 1211, the decisive battle between Mongols and Jin dynasty, leading to the ultimate conquest of northern China.

In August 1211, during the

Kublai, his brother, in charge of affairs of northern China. Kublai established Jinlianchuan Mufu (金蓮川幕府), enlisting many talent of Han people like Liu Bingzhong to assist his governance. Kublai regularly consulted them and discussed politics, religion ranging from Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism
.

In 1307,

Red Turban Rebellion as the rebels marched towards Shangdu
.

In 1370,

Zhu Yuanzhang ordered his general, Tang He, to occupy Xuande (宣德), later changed to Xuanfu (宣府), Hua Yunlong to occupy Yunzhou (雲州), seated in the north of Chicheng. Xuanfu was one of the Nine Garrisons of the Ming dynasty. In order to defend China proper from invasions from the north, Ming emperors, especially Yongle Emperor (who sent the fleet of Zheng He journeying as far as East Africa) put great emphasis on the building of defensive forces in northern China, where most troops were deployed in Xuanfu, reaching 151 thousand during 1403 to 1424. Fighting Mongols, Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols
mainly took place to the north of Zhangjiakou. In 1429, the construction of Zhangjiakoubu (張家口堡; 'Castle of Zhang Family's (Mountain) Pass') was started. The castle was one defensive stronghold in the Great Walls.

Tumu Crisis

On September 1, 1449, while retreating from the campaign against Mongols (Oirats), the 500,000-man army was defeated and the Emperor Yingzong of Ming was captured by chasing Mongolian troops in Huailai County, which was later called Tumu Crisis. The Emperor was sent back next year but only restored his throne in 1457. In 1529, local officer Zhang Zhen (张珍) built a small gate to north, which was strengthen in 1574 and 1581. Zhangjiakoubu enjoyed a paramount strategic position, thus being called Wuheng (武城; 'Martial Town'). Therefore, Zhangjiakoubu was the origin and starting point of modern-day Zhangjiakou City.[6]: 29–31 

Zhangjiakoubu is the origin of today's Zhangjiakou City

In 1514 and 1517, Dayan Khan led Mongol troops to invade China, causing great damage. He built forts in Xuanhua and Datong and stationed 15000 troops on Ming territory. Culminating in the Battle of Yingzhou (應州大捷) in 1517, Dayan Khan was killed in the battle. From 1545, Xuanda Governor Weng Wanda (宣大總督翁萬達) began building Xuanfu Great Wall, reaching 462 li (231 km) next year. In 1545, he built Great Walls again, reaching 169 li (84.5 km), effectively defending the area of Mongol cavalry's invasion.[6]: 115 

The water-scarce city was historically the chief northern gate in the

Nicolae Milescu), often through the Juyong Pass
.

View of Zhangjiakou (Kalgan) in 1698

In 1571, Altan Khan of Mongols received the title "Prince of Shunyi" (Obedient and Righteous Prince) from the Longqing Emperor, thus reaching an agreement of lasting peace with Ming. Since then, the city of Zhangjiakou was transformed from a military base to an important horse market for Mongolian mounts imported into China.[6]: 40  From 1727 it was an important station for the Kyakhta trade between Russia and China. In early autumn long lines of camels would come in from all quarters for the conveyance of the tea chests from "Kalgan" (Zhangjiakou) to Kyakhta across the Gobi Desert. Each caravan usually made three journeys in the winter. In the 19th century some Russian merchants had permanent residences and warehouses just outside the gate.

Modern history

Two trains passing the Qinglongqiao Station on the Beijing-Zhangjiakou Railway

In October 1909, Zhangjiakou was connected with Beijing by

Xinhai Revolution, Zhangjiakou was incorporated into Chahar Special Administrative Region, later changed to Chahar Province in 1928, after the success of Northern Expedition of Kuomintang
.

In 1937, the Japanese occupied the region and made Kalgan the capital of the autonomous Cha-nan (South Chahar) Province. The Federated Mengjiang Commission was set up to supervise the economic affairs, banking, communications, and industry of Japanese-occupied Inner Mongolia (Mengjiang).

During the second phase of the Chinese Civil War, The 35th Army under Fu Zuoyi was surrounded at Xinbao'an of Zhangjiakou and defeated. This caused Fu Zuo Yi to quickly strike a deal with the Communists and make peace.

In the early 1960s, at the height of Sino-Soviet tensions, Zhangjiakou was considered one of the most important cities in China for military strategy reasons. Zhangjiakou was aptly nicknamed, "Beijing's Northern Door", because whoever controlled Zhangjiakou was in a good position to either attack (in the case of the Soviets) or defend (in the case of the Chinese) Beijing.

Zhangjiakou hosted some of the events in the 2022 Winter Olympics.[9]

Tourism

Dajingmen, a gate of Great Wall built around 1644

Lying in between the Mongolian Plateau and the North China Plain, Zhangjiakou has a somewhat rugged topography characterized by high mountains, deep valleys, and rocky pathways. As a result, it serves as a perfect natural screen for Beijing, which has made it a strategic priority militarily since ancient times. It is called "The Gateway to Beijing" and "The Mountain City beyond the Great Wall". The grand Yan Mountain, the towering Taihang Mountain, the vast grasslands, and the meandering Sangyang River converge here. The city government has regarded tourism as a major driving force of the city's economy and continues to develop the industry.[citation needed]

As a place where water resources for Beijing is located, ecological and sustainable development have been emphasized by local government. Due to its less impact on environment than heavy industry, tourism figures significantly in local policies of development. Possessing diverse landforms, such as plains, hills, mountains, basins and grasslands, Zhangjiakou is an ideal place for holidays, entertainment sightseeing for neighbour middle class and can provide tourists with a variety of experiences. In the area, there are significant differences in different seasons. In winter, tourists can ski in Chongli Mountains; in spring, they can visit historical sites; in summer, visitors can sleep in Mongolian yurts on Zhangbei Grassland, where annual musical events were held and taste fresh mutton; while in autumn, visitors can taste Huailai wine and take a bath in nearby hot springs.[5]: 155 

In today's Zhangbei county a major attraction are the ruins and museum of the former Yuan capital Zhongdu.[10]

Geography and climate

Zhangjiakou is located in the northwest part of Hebei province, and is defined by mostly rough terrain created by the Yin Mountains, with elevations increasing from southeast to northwest. The east of the prefecture marks the Yan Mountains The bordering prefectures in the province are Chengde to the northeast and Baoding to the south. It also borders Shanxi to the west and southwest and Inner Mongolia to the northwest. The prefecture's latitude ranges from 39° 30' to 42° 10' N, or 289.2 kilometres (179.7 mi), while its longitude spans 113° 50' to 116° 30' E, or 216.2 kilometres (134.3 mi).

Zhangjiakou City is divided into three topographical regions: plateau, mountains, and basin. The former has elevations generally above 1,400 metres (4,600 ft), and consists of all of Guyuan and Kangbao Counties as well as part of Shangyi and Zhangbei Counties. This area is part of the southern end of the

Inner Mongolia Plateau (内蒙古高原) and accounts for one-third of the prefecture's area.[11]
The basin area has elevations of 500 to 1,000 metres (1,600 to 3,300 ft) and supports a few rivers.

The urban area of Zhangjiakou is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The

Zhangjiakou has a

East Asian monsoon
; in between spring and autumn are dry and brief. Conditions are much cooler than in Beijing due in part to the elevation. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −8.1 °C (17.4 °F) in January to 24.2 °C (75.6 °F) in July, and the annual mean is 9.2 °C (48.6 °F).

Climate data for Zhangjiakou (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1971–2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 9.8
(49.6)
18.2
(64.8)
27.0
(80.6)
33.3
(91.9)
36.8
(98.2)
39.4
(102.9)
41.1
(106.0)
37.2
(99.0)
35.9
(96.6)
27.7
(81.9)
20.8
(69.4)
14.0
(57.2)
41.1
(106.0)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −2.1
(28.2)
2.6
(36.7)
9.9
(49.8)
18.5
(65.3)
25.0
(77.0)
28.9
(84.0)
30.1
(86.2)
28.7
(83.7)
24.0
(75.2)
16.3
(61.3)
6.7
(44.1)
−0.7
(30.7)
15.7
(60.2)
Daily mean °C (°F) −8.0
(17.6)
−4.0
(24.8)
3.1
(37.6)
11.4
(52.5)
18.2
(64.8)
22.3
(72.1)
24.3
(75.7)
22.7
(72.9)
17.3
(63.1)
9.6
(49.3)
0.7
(33.3)
−6.3
(20.7)
9.3
(48.7)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −12.4
(9.7)
−9.0
(15.8)
−2.6
(27.3)
5.1
(41.2)
11.7
(53.1)
16.5
(61.7)
19.3
(66.7)
17.8
(64.0)
11.9
(53.4)
4.5
(40.1)
−3.7
(25.3)
−10.5
(13.1)
4.1
(39.3)
Record low °C (°F) −24.9
(−12.8)
−21.9
(−7.4)
−16.5
(2.3)
−7.7
(18.1)
−1.3
(29.7)
5.1
(41.2)
12.5
(54.5)
7.2
(45.0)
1.1
(34.0)
−9.1
(15.6)
−17.5
(0.5)
−22.2
(−8.0)
−24.9
(−12.8)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 2.5
(0.10)
3.1
(0.12)
9.1
(0.36)
20.3
(0.80)
37.9
(1.49)
66.3
(2.61)
101.9
(4.01)
78.1
(3.07)
57.5
(2.26)
24.8
(0.98)
8.7
(0.34)
2.7
(0.11)
412.9
(16.25)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 1.7 2.4 3.7 5.0 7.9 11.2 11.8 10.8 8.6 5.2 2.9 1.8 73
Average snowy days 2.8 3.7 3.7 1.2 0 0 0 0 0 0.3 3.1 2.5 17.3
Average
relative humidity
(%)
43 39 36 35 38 51 62 63 57 50 47 44 47
Mean monthly sunshine hours 193.8 194.3 231.9 251.0 275.2 249.9 244.6 249.1 227.2 217.3 183.3 178.8 2,696.4
Percent possible sunshine 65 64 62 63 61 56 54 59 62 64 62 62 61
Source 1: China Meteorological Administration[13][14]
Source 2: Weather China[15]

Administrative divisions

Map including Zhangjiakou (labeled as CHANG-CHIA-K'OU (KALGAN) 張家口) (AMS, 1963)
Map
Name
Hanzi
Hanyu Pinyin
Population (2004 est.) Area (km2) Density (/km2)
Districts
Qiaoxi District
桥西区 Qiáoxī Qū 230,000 141 1,631
Qiaodong District
桥东区 Qiáodōng Qū 260,000 113 2,301
Xuanhua District
宣化区 Xuānhuà Qū 590,000 2,371 248
Xiahuayuan District
下花园区 Xiàhuāyuán Qū 70,000 315 222
Wanquan District
万全区 Wànquán Qū 220,000 1,158 190
Chongli District
崇礼区 Chónglǐ Qū 120,000 2,326 52
Counties
Zhangbei County 张北县 Zhāngběi Xiàn 370,000 4,232 87
Kangbao County 康保县 Kāngbǎo Xiàn 280,000 3,365 83
Guyuan County
沽源县 Gūyuán Xiàn 230,000 3,601 64
Shangyi County 尚义县 Shàngyì Xiàn 190,000 2,621 72
Yu County 蔚县 Yù Xiàn 460,000 3,216 143
Yangyuan County 阳原县 Yángyuán Xiàn 280,000 1,834 153
Huai'an County
怀安县 Huái'ān Xiàn 250,000 1,706 147
Huailai County 怀来县 Huáilái Xiàn 340,000 1,793 190
Zhuolu County 涿鹿县 Zhuōlù Xiàn 330,000 2,799 118
Chicheng County 赤城县 Chìchéng Xiàn 280,000 5,238 53

Economy

Rongchen Century Building in downtown Zhangjiakou

The vicinity of Zhangjiakou is rich in

grape wine industries, with the Great Wall Wine Company being located in Shacheng, Huailai County.[16]

Due to its comparatively late implementation

Reform and Opening
policies, the scale of foreign investment in Zhangjiakou is not quite large. Currently, there are approximately 130 foreign companies settled. The amount of investment reached 820 million US dollars. The largest one is Zhangjiakou Volvo Motor Company with investment amounting to 3.1 billion RMB, and value of output exceeding 1 billion RMB.
[5]: 168  In 2022, Volvo Cars' powertrain plant at Zhangjiakou was transferred to Aurobay,[17] a joint venture between Volvo Cars and Geely.[18]

Due to several factors including the hosting of

2022 Winter Olympic Games with its concomitant expansion of infrastructure, the opening of high-speed railway in December 2019, the national strategy of coordinated development of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, the ratification of building a national demonstration zone of renewable energy by State Council of the People's Republic of China, Zhangjiakou economy is expected to undergo unprecedented advance in the coming years.[5]
: 168 

Transportation

Military

Zhangjiakou is headquarters of the

65th Group Army of the People's Liberation Army, one of the three group armies that comprise the Beijing Military Region
responsible for defending China's capital.

Education

Zhangjiakou is home to Hebei North University. The university has been improving its international network and many foreign students are now studying there. Another university Hebei University of Architecture is located in Qiaodong District. Zhangjiakou No.1 Middle School is the most famous secondary school in Zhangjiakou. Beijing No.101 Middle School was a branch of Zhangjiakou No.1 Middle School in the past.

Sports

Location of the 2022 Winter Olympics clusters

Zhangjiakou hosted Freestyle and Nordic skiing and snowboarding excluding big air for the

Chongli District.[22] The ski resort earned over 1.54 billion yuan (US$237.77 million) in tourism during the 2015–16 snow season for a 31.6% growth over the previous season. The snow season lasted for five months from November, during which Chongli has hosted thirty-six competitions and activities, such as Far East Cup and Children Skiing International Festival. A total of twenty-three skiing camps were set up, attracting the participation of 3,800 youths.[23]

Venues currently being constructed are:

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, ed. (2019). China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2017. Beijing: China Statistics Press. p. 46. Retrieved 11 January 2020.
  2. from the original on 2020-03-26. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  3. ^ "Zhangjiakou pronunciation". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
  4. ^ 张家口市教育科研研究所 (2003-08-01). 张家口地理. Hainan Press (海南出版社).
  5. ^ .
  6. ^ .
  7. .
  8. ^ "A Relation of two Russe Cossacks travailes, out of Siberia to Catay, and other Countries adjoyning thereunto. Also a Copie of the last Patent from the Muscovite. A Copie of a Letter written to the Emperor from his Governors out of Siberia". Published as Chapter XI in: Samuel Purchas, Haklutyus Posthumus (or, Purchas His Pilgrimes), vol. XIV, p. 280. 1625. Full Text on archive.org. The city name reported by Petlin appears in Purchas' English translation as "Shirokalga".
  9. ^ "Beijing and Zhangjiakou launch a joint bid to host the 2022 Winter Olympic Games". Insidethegames.biz. 2013-11-05. Retrieved 2014-03-28.
  10. ^ Zhou, Raymond (2016-09-05). "A lost capital haunted by ghosts and history". China Daily. Retrieved 2020-05-11.
  11. ^ 地理环境 (in Simplified Chinese). Archived from the original on July 7, 2009.
  12. .
  13. ^ 中国气象数据网 – WeatherBk Data (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
  14. ^ "Experience Template" 中国气象数据网 (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
  15. ^ 张家口 - 气象数据 -中国天气网 (in Chinese). Weather China. Retrieved 29 November 2022.
  16. ^ [1] Archived September 16, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
  17. ^ Zhangjiakou plant joins Aurobay
  18. ^ Volvo Cars and Geely Holding Create Aurobay for Joint Powertrain Operations
  19. ^ "Railway Gazette: News in Brief". Retrieved 2011-01-02.
  20. ^ "COALWorld". Retrieved 2011-01-02.
  21. Xinhua. Archived from the original
    on December 30, 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
  22. ^ "Beijing announces gym layout for 2022 Winter Olympics". People's Daily Online. 20 February 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
  23. ^ gaiazhang. "Beijing 2022 Games Ski Venue Receives Over 2 Million Tourists". Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2016.

External links