Zika fever
Zika fever | |
---|---|
Other names | Zika virus disease, Zika, Zika virus infection |
Supportive care, Generally not needed in mild cases[2] | |
Deaths | ≥ 51 (2016–19)[9] |
Zika fever, also known as Zika virus disease or simply Zika, is an infectious disease caused by the
Zika fever is mainly spread via the bite of
Prevention involves decreasing mosquito bites in areas where the disease occurs and proper use of condoms.
The virus that causes the disease was first isolated in Africa in 1947.
Signs and symptoms
Most people who are infected have no or few symptoms.
Due to being in the same family as dengue, there has been concern that it could cause similar bleeding disorders. However that has only been documented in one case, with blood seen in semen, also known as hematospermia.[20]
Guillain–Barré syndrome
Zika virus infections have been strongly associated with
Pregnancy
The disease spreads from
Whether the stage of pregnancy at which the mother becomes infected affects the risk to the fetus is not well understood, nor is whether other risk factors affect outcomes.[5][6][10] One group has estimated the risk of a baby developing microcephaly at about 1% when the mother is infected during the first trimester, with the risk of developing microcephaly becoming uncertain beyond the first trimester.[31] Affected babies might appear normal but actually have brain abnormalities; infection in newborns could also lead to brain damage.[32]
Cause
Reservoir
Transmission
Transmission is via the bite of mosquitoes from the genus Aedes, primarily Aedes aegypti in tropical regions. It has also been isolated from Ae. africanus, Ae. apicoargenteus, Ae. luteocephalus,[35] Ae. albopictus,[36][37] Ae. vittatus and Ae. furcifer.[33] During the 2007 outbreak on Yap Island in the South Pacific, Aedes hensilli was the vector, while Aedes polynesiensis spread the virus in French Polynesia in 2013.[38]
Zika virus can also spread by
Cases of vertical
Like other
Pathophysiology
In fruit flies microcephaly appears to be caused by the
Diagnosis
It is difficult to diagnose Zika virus infection based on clinical signs and symptoms alone due to overlaps with other
In small case series, routine chemistry and complete blood counts have been normal in most patients. A few have been reported to have mild leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and elevated liver transaminases.[56]
Zika virus can be identified by
Later on, serology for the detection of specific IgM and IgG antibodies to Zika virus can be used. IgM antibodies can be detectable within 3 days of the onset of illness.[33] Serological cross-reactions with closely related flaviviruses such as dengue and West Nile virus as well as vaccines to flaviviruses are possible.[4][58][59] As of 2019, the FDA has authorized two tests to detect Zika virus antibodies.[60]
Screening in pregnancy
The CDC recommends screening some pregnant women even if they do not have symptoms of infection. Pregnant women who have traveled to affected areas should be tested between two and twelve weeks after their return from travel.
Infant testing
For infants with suspected
Infant feeding in areas of Zika virus transmission
In response to the widespread transmission of Zika virus during the 2016 outbreak and concerns of viral genetic material detected in breast milk the World Health Organization (WHO) released a Guideline of infant feeding in areas of Zika virus transmission, first in 2016 and updated in 2021, where the evidence showed that despite the detection of Zika virus in breast milk, there is unclear evidence of transmission to the infant, and considering that Zika virus infection among infants is mild, the balance between desirable and undesirable effects favours breastfeeding versus not breastfeeding.[65] According to the 2021WHO guidelines:[65]
- Infants born to mothers with suspected, probable or confirmed Zika virus infection or who reside in or have travelled to areas of ongoing Zika virus transmission should be fed according to normal infant feeding guidelines. They should start breastfeeding within one hour of birth, be exclusively breastfed for six months and have timely introduction of adequate, safe and properly fed complementary foods, while continuing breastfeeding up to two years of age or beyond.[65]
- Infants fed with expressed breast-milk from mothers with suspected, probable or confirmed Zika virus infection or who reside in or have travelled to areas of ongoing Zika virus transmission should be fed according to normal infant feeding guidelines (strong recommendation, very-low certainty of evidence).[65]
- Among infants (0–12 months) affected by complications associated with Zika virus infection, infant feeding practices should be modified (such as adjusting the environment, postural correction or thickening feeds) to achieve and maintain optimal possible infant growth and development (strong recommendation, very- low certainty of evidence).[65]
- Mothers and caregivers of infants affected by complications associated with Zika virus (such as feeding difficulties) should receive skilled support from health-care workers to initiate and sustain optimal infant feeding practices[65]
Prevention
The virus is spread by mosquitoes, making mosquito avoidance an important element to disease control. The CDC recommends that individuals:[66]
- Cover exposed skin by wearing long-sleeved shirts and long pants treated with permethrin.[67]
- Use an insect repellent containing oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE), or ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate(IR3535)
- Always follow product directions and reapply as directed
- If you are also using sunscreen, apply sunscreen first, let it dry, then apply insect repellent
- Follow package directions when applying repellent on children. Avoid applying repellent to their hands, eyes, or mouth
- Stay and sleep in screened-in or air-conditioned rooms
- Use a bed net if the area where you are sleeping is exposed to the outdoors
- Cover cribs, strollers and carriers with mosquito netting for babies under 2 months old.
The CDC also recommends strategies for controlling mosquitoes such as eliminating standing water, repairing septic tanks and using screens on doors and windows.[69][70] Spraying insecticide is used to kill flying mosquitoes and larvicide can be used in water containers.[1]
Because Zika virus can be sexually transmitted, men who have gone to an area where Zika fever is occurring should be counseled to either abstain from sex or use condoms for 6 months after travel if their partner is pregnant or could potentially become pregnant.[19][39][48] Breastfeeding is still recommended by the WHO, even by women who have had Zika fever. There have been no recorded cases of Zika transmission to infants through breastfeeding, though the replicative virus has been detected in breast milk.[49][71]
When returning from travel, with or without symptoms, it is suggested that prevention of mosquito bites continue for 3 weeks in order reduce the risk of virus transmission to uninfected mosquitos.[66]
CDC travel alert
Because of the "growing evidence of a link between Zika and microcephaly", in January 2016, the CDC issued a
In September 2016, the CDC travel advisories included:[75]
- Cape Verde
- Many parts of the Caribbean: Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, The Bahamas, Barbados, Bonaire, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Curaçao, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, Puerto Rico, Saba, Saint Saint Barthélemy, Saint Lucia, Saint Martin, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten, Trinidad and Tobago, and the U.S. Virgin Islands
- Central America: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama
- Mexico
- Most of South America: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela
- Several Pacific Islands: American Samoa, Fiji, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Tonga
- In Asia: Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei
In December 2020, no active Zika outbreaks were reported by the CDC.[76]
WHO response
Both the regional Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) as well as the WHO have issued statements of concern about the widespread public health impact of the Zika virus and its links to GBS and microcephaly.[77][78] The WHO Director-General, Margaret Chan, issued a statement in February 2016 "declaring that the recent cluster of microcephaly cases and other neurological disorders reported in Brazil, following a similar cluster in French Polynesia in 2014, constitutes a Public Health Emergency of International Concern."[13] The declaration allowed the WHO to coordinate international response to the virus as well as gave its guidance the force of international law under the International Health Regulations.[79][80] The declaration was ended in November 2016.[81]
Vaccine
As of 2016 there was no available vaccine. Development was a priority of the US National Institutes of Health (NIH), but officials stated that development of a vaccine could take years.[4][19][54][82] To speed new drug development regulatory strategies were proposed by the WHO and NIH.[83][84] Animal and early human studies were underway as of September 2016.[85][86] As of December 2019, there were several vaccine candidates in various stages of development.[87]
Mosquito control
Disease control in the affected countries currently centres around mosquito control. Several approaches are available for the management of Aedes aegypti mosquito populations, including the destruction of larval breeding sites (the aquatic pools in which eggs are laid and larvae hatch prior to mosquito development into flying adults); and, insecticides targeting either the larval stages, adult mosquitoes or both. Additionally, a whole host of novel technologies are under current development for mosquito control and the World Health Organization has recently lent its support for the accelerated development of modern methods for mosquito control such as the use of Wolbachia bacteria to render mosquitoes resistant to the virus, and, the release of sterilized male mosquitoes that breed with wild female mosquitoes to give rise to non-viable offspring (offspring that do not survive to the biting, adult stage).[88]
Oxitec's genetically modified OX513A mosquito was approved by Brazil's National Biosecurity Technical Commission (CTNBio) in April 2014[89] and it was being used to try to combat mosquitoes carrying the Zika virus in the town of Piracicaba, São Paulo in 2016.[90]
In the 1940s and 1950s, the Aedes aegypti mosquito was eradicated on some Caribbean islands and in at least eighteen Latin American countries. Decreasing political will and presumably available money, mosquito resistance to insecticide, and a pace of urbanization which exceeded eradication efforts led to this mosquito's comeback.[91]
Treatment
There is currently no specific treatment for Zika virus infection. Care is supportive with treatment of pain, fever, and itching.[38] Some authorities have recommended against using aspirin and other NSAIDs as these have been associated with hemorrhagic syndrome when used for other flaviviruses.[4][19] Additionally, aspirin use is generally avoided in children when possible due to the risk of Reye syndrome.[92]
Zika virus had been relatively little studied until the major outbreak in 2015, and no specific antiviral treatments are available as yet.[19] Advice to pregnant women is to avoid any risk of infection so far as possible, as once infected there is little that can be done beyond supportive treatment.[93]
Outcomes
Most of the time, Zika fever resolves on its own in two to seven days, but rarely, some people develop Guillain–Barré syndrome.[4][94] The fetus of a pregnant woman who has Zika fever may die or be born with congenital central nervous system malformations, like microcephaly.[4]
Epidemiology
In April 1947, as part of studies sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation into yellow fever, 6 caged rhesus monkeys were placed in the canopy of the Zika Forest of Uganda.[95] On April 18 one of the monkeys (no. 776) developed a fever and blood samples revealed the first known case of Zika fever.[33][95] Population surveys at the time in Uganda found 6.1% of individuals to be seropositive for Zika.[47] The first human cases were reported in Nigeria in 1954.[96] A few outbreaks have been reported in tropical Africa and in some areas in Southeast Asia.[97] Until recently there were no documented cases of Zika virus in the Indian subcontinent,[98] however, the first cases were reported in 2017 from Gujarat state and Tamil Nadu,[99] more cases were reported in Rajasthan state involving an outbreak of 153 reported cases[100] and in a pregnant women living in Kerala state.[101] A 1954 study assessing blood samples from several people from different states found antibodies to Zika in healthy people in India which could indicate past exposure, though it could also be due to cross-reaction with other flaviviruses.[98]
By using phylogenetic analysis of Asian strains, it was estimated that Zika virus had moved to Southeast Asia by 1945.[47] In 1977–1978, Zika virus infection was described as a cause of fever in Indonesia.[102] Before 2007, there were only 13 reported natural infections with Zika virus, all with a mild, self-limited febrile illness.[33][103] As of July 2019, evidence of local transmission from mosquitoes to humans has been reported in a total of 87 countries from four of six WHO Regions; African, Americas, South-East Asia and Western Pacific.[104]
Yap Islands
The first major outbreak, with 185 confirmed cases, was reported in 2007 in the Yap Islands of the Federated States of Micronesia.[105] A total of 108 cases were confirmed by PCR or serology and 72 additional cases were suspected. The most common symptoms were rash, fever, arthralgia, and conjunctivitis, and no deaths were reported. The mosquito Aedes hensilli, which was the predominant species identified in Yap during the outbreak, was probably the main vector of transmission. While the way of introduction of the virus on Yap Island remains uncertain, it is likely to have happened through introduction of infected mosquitoes or a human infected with a strain related to those in Southeast Asia.[47][105] This was also the first time Zika fever had been reported outside Africa and Asia.[3] Before the Yap Island outbreak, only 14 human cases had ever been reported.[106]
Oceania
In 2013–2014, several outbreaks of Zika were reported in French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Easter Island and the Cook Islands. The source of the virus was thought to be an independent introduction of the virus from Southeast Asia, unrelated to the Yap Islands outbreak.[47]
Americas
Genetic analyses of Zika virus strains suggest that Zika first entered the Americas between May and December 2013.[107] It was first detected in the Western Hemisphere in February 2014, and rapidly spread throughout South and Central America, reaching Mexico in November 2015.[19][47][108] In 2016 it established local transmission in Florida and Texas.[109][110] The first death in the United States due to Zika occurred in February 2016.[111]
In May 2015, Brazil officially reported its first 16 cases of the illness.[112] Although, a case of illness was reported in March 2015 in a returning traveller.[113] According to the Brazilian Health Ministry, as of November 2015 there was no official count of the number of people infected with the virus in Brazil, since the disease is not subject to compulsory notification. Even so, cases were reported in 14 states of the country. Mosquito-borne Zika virus is suspected to be the cause of 2,400 possible cases of microcephaly and 29 infant deaths in Brazil in 2015 (of the 2400 or so notified cases in 2015, 2165 were under investigation in December 2015, 134 were confirmed and 102 were ruled out for microcephaly).[114]
The Brazilian Health Ministry has reported at least 2,400 suspected cases of microcephaly in the country in 2015 as of 12 December, and 29 fatalities.[114][115][116][117] Before the Zika outbreak, only an average of 150 to 200 cases per year were reported in Brazil.[118] In the state of Pernambuco the reported rates of microcephaly in 2015 are 77 times higher than in the previous 5 years.[118] A model using data from a Zika outbreak in French Polynesia estimated the risk of microcephaly in children born to mothers who acquired Zika virus in the first trimester to be 1%.[119]
On 24 January 2016, the WHO warned that the virus is likely to spread to nearly all countries of the Americas, since its vector, the mosquito Aedes aegypti, is found in all countries in the region, except for Canada and continental Chile.[120][121] The mosquito and dengue fever have been detected in Chile's Easter Island, some 3,500 km (2,200 mi) away from its closest point in mainland Chile, since 2002.[122]
In February 2016, WHO declared the outbreak a
Asia
In 2016 imported or locally transmitted Zika was reported in all the countries of Asia except Brunei, Hong Kong, Myanmar and Nepal.
History
Origin of the name
It is named after the Zika Forest near Entebbe, Uganda, where the Zika virus was first identified.[132]
Microcephaly and other infant disorders
Zika virus was first identified in the late 1940s in Kampala, Uganda, Africa but was first confirmed in Brazil. Since it was first identified, Zika has been found in more than 27 countries and territories.[133] Following the initial Zika outbreak in Northeastern Brazil in May 2015, physicians observed a very large surge of reports of infants born with microcephaly, with 20 times the number of expected cases.[134][135] Many of these cases have since been confirmed, leading WHO officials to project that approximately 2,500 infants will be found to have born in Brazil with Zika-related microcephaly.[136][137]
Proving that Zika causes these effects was difficult and complex for several reasons.[138][139] For example, the effects on an infant might not be seen until months after the mother's initial infection, long after the time when Zika is easily detected in the body.[138] In addition, research was needed to determine the mechanism by which Zika produced these effects.[140]
Since the initial outbreak, studies that use several different methods found evidence of a link, leading public health officials to conclude that it appears increasingly likely the virus is linked to microcephaly and miscarriage.
The Zika virus was first linked with newborn microcephaly during the Brazil Zika virus outbreak. In 2015, there were 2,782 suspected cases of microcephaly compared with 147 in 2014 and 167 in 2013.[134] Confirmation of many of the recent cases is pending,[143] and it is difficult to estimate how many cases went unreported before the recent awareness of the risk of virus infections.[144]
In November 2015, the Zika virus was isolated in a newborn baby from the northeastern
In January 2016, a baby in Oahu, Hawaii, was born with microcephaly, the first case in the United States of brain damage linked to the virus. The baby and mother tested positive for a past Zika virus infection. The mother, who had probably acquired the virus while traveling in Brazil in May 2015 during the early stages of her pregnancy, had reported her bout of Zika. She recovered before relocating to Hawaii. Her pregnancy had progressed normally, and the baby's condition was not known until birth.[147]
In February 2016, ocular disorders in newborns have been linked to Zika virus infection.[148] In one study in Pernambuco state in Brazil, about 40 percent of babies with Zika-related microcephaly also had scarring of the retina with spots, or pigment alteration.[149] On 20 February 2016, Brazilian scientists announced that they had successfully sequenced the Zika virus genome and expressed hope that this would help in both developing a vaccine and in determining the nature of any link to birth defects.[150]
Also in February 2016, rumors that microcephaly is caused by the use of the larvicide pyriproxyfen in drinking water were refuted by scientists.[151][152][153] "It's important to state that some localities that do not use pyriproxyfen also had reported cases of microcephaly", read a Brazilian government statement.[154] The Brazilian government also refuted conspiracy theories that chickenpox and rubella vaccinations or genetically modified mosquitoes were causing increases in microcephaly.[153]
Researchers also suspected that Zika virus could be transmitted by a pregnant woman to her baby ("vertical transmission"). This remained unproven until February 2016, when a paper by Calvet et al. was published, showing not only was the Zika virus genome found in the amniotic fluid but also IgM antibodies against the virus.[155] This means that not only can the virus cross the placental barrier, but also the antibodies produced by the mother can reach the fetus, which suggests that vertical transmission is plausible in these cases. One other study published in March 2016 by Mlakar and colleagues analyzed autopsy tissues from a fetus with microcephaly that was probably related to Zika virus; researchers found ZIKV in the brain tissue and suggested that the brain injuries were probably associated with the virus, which also shed a light on the vertical transmission theory.[156] Also in March 2016, first solid evidence was reported on how the virus affects the development of the brain, indicating that it appears to preferentially kill developing brain cells.[157]
The first cases of birth defects linked to Zika in Colombia[158] and in Panama were reported in March 2016.[159] In the same month, researchers published a prospective cohort study that found profound impacts in 29 percent of infants of mothers infected with Zika, some of whom were infected late in pregnancy.[25] This study did not suffer from some of the difficulties of studying Zika: the study followed women who presented to a Rio de Janeiro clinic with fever and rash within the last five days. The women were then tested for Zika using PCR, then the progress of the pregnancies were followed using ultrasound.[25][160]
Guillain–Barré syndrome
A high rate of the autoimmune disease Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS), noted in the French Polynesia outbreak, has also been found in the outbreak that began in Brazil.[145] Laboratory analysis found Zika infections in some patients with GBS in Brazil, El Salvador, Suriname and Venezuela,[161] and the WHO declared on 22 March 2016 that Zika appeared to be "implicated" in GBS infection and that if the pattern was confirmed it would represent a global public health crisis.[162]
Research
Mechanism
Early in the 2015–16 Zika virus epidemic, research was begun to better understand how Zika virus causes microcephaly and other neurological disorders.[163] However, with the 2019 election of Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil, who cut funding for research, and the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020, most Zika-related research projects were abandoned or reduced.[164]
It may involve infection of the primary neural
In addition to inducing cell death, infection of neural progenitor cells may alter the process of cell proliferation, causing a depletion in the pool of progenitor cells.
Another line of research considers that Zika, unlike other flaviviruses, may target developing brain cells after it crosses the placenta, and considers the resulting damage likely to be the result of inflammation as a byproduct of the immune response to the infection of those cells.[169]
Mosquito control
Some experimental methods of prevention include breeding and releasing mosquitoes that have been genetically modified to prevent them from transmitting pathogens, or have been infected with the Wolbachia bacterium, believed to inhibit the spread of viruses.[19][170] A strain of Wolbachia helped to reduce the vector competence of the Zika virus in infected Aedes aegypti released in Medellin, Colombia.[171]
Gene drive is a technique for changing wild populations, for instance to combat insects so they cannot transmit diseases (in particular mosquitoes in the cases of malaria and Zika).[172] Another method which been researched aims to render male mosquitoes infertile by nuclear radiation in the hope to reduce populations; this is done with a cobalt-60 gamma cell irradiator.[173] In 2016 the World Health Organization encouraged field trials of transgenic male Aedes aegypti mosquitoes developed by Oxitec to try to halt the spread of the Zika virus.[174]
See also
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Zika virus". World Health Organization. January 2016. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
- ^ PMID 26832396.
- ^ PMID 24909208.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Factsheet for health professionals". Zika virus infection. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 3 September 2010. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
- ^ PMID 27074377.
- ^ a b c d "CDC Concludes Zika Causes Microcephaly and Other Birth Defects". CDC. 13 April 2016. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-323-44335-7. Archivedfrom the original on 10 September 2017.
- ^ PMID 27032078.
- S2CID 202414341.
A systematic review of the literature was performed, showing 51 reported deaths associated with ZIKV infection in nine countries.
- ^ a b c "Zika Virus Microcephaly And Guillain–Barré Syndrome Situation Report" (PDF). World Health Organization. 7 April 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
- ^ "Brazil warns against pregnancy due to spreading virus". CNN. 24 December 2015. Archived from the original on 24 December 2015. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
- PMID 22389730.
- ^ a b c "WHO Director-General summarizes the outcome of the Emergency Committee regarding clusters of microcephaly and Guillain–Barré syndrome". Media Centre. World Health Organization. 1 February 2016. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
- ^ "Zika situation report". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
- ^ "Zika Virus". CDC. 5 November 2014. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
- ^ "Symptoms, Diagnosis, & Treatment of Zika Virus". Zika Virus Home. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 5 November 2014. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- PMID 22305269.
- ^ "Signs and Symptoms". Zika virus home. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 5 November 2014. Archived from the original on 29 January 2016. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
- ^ PMID 27013839.
- PMID 21529401.
- S2CID 42198417.
- ^ "Guillain–Barré syndrome Q & A". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 8 February 2016. Archived from the original on 11 March 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
- PMID 31289325.
- PMID 26948433.
- ^ PMID 26943629.
- PMID 26943629.
- PMID 26865554.
- PMID 26914330.
- ^ PMID 27930910.
- PMID 27487767.
- bioRxiv 10.1101/051060.
- PMID 27372398.
- ^ PMID 19788800.
- ISBN 978-3-642-71911-0. Archivedfrom the original on 17 June 2016.
- ^ "Aedes luteocephala". Medically Important Mosquitoes. Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit. Archived from the original on 28 January 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
- PMID 24516683.
- PMID 23936579.
- ^ a b c "Zika virus". Archived from the original on 25 December 2015. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
- ^ PMID 26866485.
- ^ "CDC encourages following guidance to prevent sexual transmission of Zika virus". CDC Newsroom Releases. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 23 February 2016. Archived from the original on 27 February 2016.
- ^ from the original on 15 March 2016.
- PMID 26949027.
- PMID 27585037.
- PMID 27711033.
- ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (14 April 2016). "Zika Virus Can be Transmitted Through Anal Sex, C.D.C. Says". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2017. Zika Virus Can Be Transmitted Through Anal Sex, C.D.C. Says
- PMID 27074370.
- ^ PMID 26684466.
- ^ from the original on 28 March 2016.
- ^ PMID 26944028.
- PMID 26674809.
- ^ "FDA advises testing for Zika virus in all donated blood and blood components in the US". Food and Drug Administration. 26 August 2016. Archived from the original on 2 September 2016.
- PMID 27118575.
- ^ Chiu, Molly (14 November 2019). "How Maternal Zika Virus Infection Results In Newborn Microcephaly". Scienmag. Retrieved 7 January 2020.
- ^ S2CID 4377569.
- ^ "Clinical Evaluation & Disease". For Health Care Providers. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 25 December 2015. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
- ^ PMID 26888897.
- PMID 27171368.
- PMID 18674965.
- PMID 18680646.
- ^ Commissioner, Office of the (18 July 2019). "Zika Virus Response Updates from FDA". FDA. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
- ^ PMID 26866840.
- ^ PMID 27559830.
- PMID 34525107.
- PMID 27585248.
- ^ a b c d e f "Guideline: infant feeding in areas of Zika virus transmission, 2nd edition". www.who.int. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
- ^ a b "Avoid bug bites". Travelers' Health. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 13 March 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
- ^ "Zika Virus – Protect Yourself from Mosquito Bites". 5 November 2014. Archived from the original on 1 October 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2016. Permethrin-treated clothing will protect you after multiple washings
- ^ Louis, Catherine Saint (4 April 2016). "DEET Seen as Safe for Pregnant Women to Avoid Zika Despite Few Studies". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2017. DEET Seen as Safe for Pregnant Women to Avoid Zika Despite Few Studies
- ^ "Surveillance and Control of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in the United States". Chikungunya Virus Home: Resources. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 10 March 2016. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016.
- ^ "Help Control Mosquitoes that Spread Dengue, Chikungunya, and Zika Viruses" (PDF). Chikungunya Virus Home: Fact Sheets and Posters. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. August 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2016.
- ^ "Breastfeeding in the context of Zika virus" (PDF). Institutional Repository for Information Sharing. World Health Organization. 25 February 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
- ^ a b Lowes, R. (15 January 2016). "CDC Issues Zika Travel Alert". Medscape Medical News. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
- ^ a b "How to Protect Yourself". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 4 March 2016. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
- ^ "CDC issues interim travel guidance related to Zika virus for 14 Countries and Territories in Central and South America and the Caribbean". CDC Newsroom Releases. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 15 January 2016. Archived from the original on 18 January 2016.
- ^ "Zika Travel Information | Travelers' Health | CDC". wwwnc.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 7 September 2016. Retrieved 2 September 2016.
- ^ "Zika Travel Information". CDC. 10 December 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
- ^ "Neurological syndrome, congenital malformations, and Zika virus infection – Epidemiological Update". Epidemiological Alerts and Updates CHA.01.04b Epidemic Alert and Response. Pan American Health Organization. 17 January 2016. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016.
- ^ "WHO Declares Zika a Public Health Emergency". NBC News. February 2016. Archived from the original on 7 February 2016. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
- from the original on 8 February 2016. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
- ^ "IHR Procedures concerning public health emergencies of international concern (PHEIC)". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
- ^ Debra Goldschmidt (18 November 2016). "WHO ends Zika public health emergency". CNN. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
- ^ Sifferlin, Alexandra (21 January 2016). "U.S. Launches 'Full-court Press' for a Zika Vaccine". Time. Archived from the original on 22 January 2016. Retrieved 23 January 2016.
- PMID 27682032.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - PMID 27682031.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - PMID 27549304.
- PMID 27469223.
- PMID 31806107.
- PMID 26848089.
- ^ Tracy Thompson: Oxitec's solution for controlling the dengue mosquito is approved by CTNBio. Archived 1 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Oxitech, 11 April 2014
- ^ Pollack, Andrew (30 January 2016). "New Weapon to Fight Zika: The Mosquito". New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
- ^ Dennis, Brady (19 February 2016). "How a tiny mosquito became one of the world's 'most efficient killers'". Washington Post. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
- S2CID 57918899. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
- PMID 26796813.
- ^ CDC Zika Virus: Health Effects & Risks Archived 20 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine Page last reviewed: August 9, 2016; Page last updated: August 9, 2016
- ^ PMID 27029595.
- from the original on 1 April 2016.
- from the original on 6 February 2016.
- ^ PMID 13163397.
- PMID 28988896.
- S2CID 226303046.
- ^ "Zika Virus Disease – India". www.who.int. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
- from the original on 6 February 2016.
- PMID 27028561.
- ^ a b WHO (2019). "Zika Epidemiology Update" (PDF). Retrieved 19 November 2021.
- ^ PMID 19516034.
- PMID 24421913.
- PMID 27013429.
- from the original on 30 December 2015.
- from the original on 11 December 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
- PMID 27684886.
- ^ "First Zika virus-related death reported in U.S. in Puerto Rico". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ "Ministério da Saúde confirma 8 casos de zika vírus no RN e 8 na BA" [Ministry of Health confirms 8 cases of zika virus in infants and 8 in BA]. Ben Estar (in Portuguese). 14 May 2015. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015.
- PMID 26084316.
- ^ a b "Monitoramento dos casos de microcefalias no Brasil" [Monitoring cases of microcephaly in Brazil] (PDF) (in Portuguese). Centro de Operações de Emergências em Saúde Pública sobre Microcefalias. 12 December 2015. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
- ^ "Governo confirma relação entre zika vírus e epidemia de microcefalia" [Government confirms relationship between zika virus and epidemic microcephaly]. BBC Brasil (in Portuguese). 28 November 2015. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
- ^ Blount, Jeb (28 November 2015). "Brazil confirms zica virus link to fetal brain-damage outbreak". Reuters. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
- ^ "País registra 1.248 casos de microcefalia e sete mortes; maioria em PE" [The country has recorded 1,248 cases of microcephaly and seven deaths; most are in PE]. UOL Notícias (in Portuguese). 30 November 2015. Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
- ^ a b "Rapid risk assessment: Zika virus epidemic in the Americas: potential association with microcephaly and Guillain–Barré syndrome" (PDF). European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 10 December 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
- PMID 26993883.
- ^ "Zika Virus likely to spread throughout the Americas, says WHO". The Guardian. 25 January 2016. Archived from the original on 24 August 2016.
- ^ "PAHO Statement on Zika Virus Transmission and Prevention". Pan American Health Organization. 24 January 2016. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016.
- PMID 25860055.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link - ^ "WHO Director-General summarizes the outcome of the Emergency Committee regarding clusters of microcephaly and Guillain–Barré syndrome". World Health Organization. 1 February 2016. Archived from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
- ^ Roberts, Michelle (1 February 2016). "Zika-linked condition: WHO declares global emergency". BBC News Online. Archived from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
- ^ Pearson, Michael (2 February 2016). "Zika virus sparks 'public health emergency'". CNN. Archived from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
- ^ "Zika Fever". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1 February 2016. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
- ^ Rosen, Meghan (22 January 2016). "Rapid spread of Zika virus in the Americas raises alarm". Science News. 189 (4): 16. Archived from the original on 23 February 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
- ^ PMID 27939768.
- PMID 34724757.
- PMID 27684526.
- PMID 27866470.
- PMID 27013839.
- PMID 26921241.
- ^ a b Romero, Simon (30 December 2015). "Alarm Spreads in Brazil Over a Virus and a Surge in Malformed Infants". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2016. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
- ^ Romero, Simon; McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (21 January 2016). "Zika Virus May be Linked to Surge in Rare Syndrome in Brazil". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 21 February 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
- ^ Sun, Lena H. (22 March 2016). "Zika: More than 2,500 babies born with microcephaly in Brazil, WHO predicts". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
- ^ Tavernise, Sabrina (22 March 2016). "Birth Defects Tied to Zika in Panama". New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
- ^ a b Fine Maron, Dina (28 January 2016). "Zika–Microcephaly Link: Public health officials are not yet ready to say the connection is causal". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 20 March 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
- ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (19 February 2016). "Proof of Zika's Role in Birth Defects Still Months Away, W.H.O. Says". New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
- ^ a b c "WHO statement on the 2nd meeting of IHR Emergency Committee on Zika virus and observed increase in neurological disorders and neonatal malformations". World Health Organization. 8 March 2016. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
- ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr.; Saint Louis, Catherine (4 March 2016). "Two Studies Strengthen Links Between the Zika Virus and Serious Birth Defects". New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
- PMID 26876373.
- ^ "Brazil may have fewer Zika-related microcephaly cases than previously reported". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 16 March 2016.
- ^ "Brazil's Pre-Zika Microcephaly Cases". Archived from the original on 14 March 2016.
- ^ S2CID 29688849.
- ^ PMID 26963593.
- ^ McNeil Jr., Donald G. (16 January 2016). "Hawaii Baby With Brain Damage Is First U.S. Case Tied to Zika Virus". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017.
- PMID 26775125.
- ^ "Zika virus: Americas, Asia". ProMED-mail. International Society for Infectious Diseases. 28 January 2016. Archived from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
- ^ Martinez, Michael (20 February 2016). "Zika virus: Brazilian scientists decipher its genome, agency says". CNN. Archived from the original on 21 February 2016.
- ^ Szabo, Liz (16 February 2016). "Scientists debunk theory linking pesticide, not Zika, to birth defects". USA Today. Archived from the original on 18 February 2016.
- ^ "Report says Monsanto-linked pesticide is to blame for microcephaly outbreak – not Zika". Science Alert. Australia. 16 February 2016. Archived from the original on 16 February 2016.
But let's be clear – there is no scientific evidence to support that link.
- ^ a b Jacobs, Andrew (16 February 2016). "Conspiracy Theories About Zika Spread Along With the Virus". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 February 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
- ^ Bowater, Donna (15 February 2016). "Zika virus: Brazil dismisses link between larvicide and microcephaly". Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 17 February 2016.
- PMID 26897108.
- PMID 26862926.
- ^ Vogel, Gretchen (4 March 2016). "Zika virus kills developing brain cells". Science. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016.
- S2CID 4470808.
- ^ "Zika: Panama has 'first microcephaly case outside Brazil'". BBC News Latin America. BBC. 19 March 2016. Archived from the original on 20 March 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
- ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr.; Saint Louis, Catherine (4 March 2016). "Two Studies Strengthen Links Between the Zika Virus and Serious Birth Defects". New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
- ^ "Zika situation report" (PDF). World Health Organization. 17 March 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
- ^ Bosley, Sarah (22 March 2016). "WHO: Zika virus 'implicated' in large numbers of brain-damaged babies". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
- PMID 28081529.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 1 December 2022.
- ^ PMID 27612156.
- PMID 19763105.
- PMID 28383800.
- PMID 27099632.
- PMID 28325921.
- ^ Gale, Jason (4 February 2016). "The Best Weapon for Fighting Zika? More Mosquitoes". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 6 April 2017.
- PMID 27364935. The wMel strain of Wolbachia Reduces Transmission of Zika virus by Aedes aegypti
- ^ Flam, Faye (4 February 2016). "Fighting Zika Virus With Genetic Engineering". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 6 June 2016.
- ^ Viegas, Luciana (23 February 2016). "IAEA Helps Brazil Step up the Fight Against 'Zika' Mosquitoes". International Atomic Energy Agency. Archived from the original on 29 June 2016.
- ^ Kelland, Kate (18 March 2016). "WHO backs trials of genetically modified mosquitoes to fight Zika". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 18 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
External links
- Managing Zika in babies (CDC)
- Species Profile – Zika Virus Disease, National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for White-Nose Syndrome.