Zirid dynasty
Zirid dynasty الزيريون | |||||||||||||||
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972–1148 | |||||||||||||||
Roman Catholicism), Judaism | |||||||||||||||
Government | Monarchy (Emirate) | ||||||||||||||
Emir | |||||||||||||||
• 973–984 | Buluggin ibn Ziri | ||||||||||||||
• 1121–1148 | Al-Hassan ibn Ali | ||||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||||
• Established | 972 | ||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1148 | ||||||||||||||
Currency | Dinar | ||||||||||||||
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History of Algeria |
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History of Tunisia |
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Africa portal • History portal |
The Zirid dynasty (
Descendants of Ziri ibn Manad, a military leader of the Fatimid Caliphate and the eponymous founder of the dynasty, the Zirids were emirs who ruled in the name of the Fatimids. The Zirids gradually established their autonomy in Ifriqiya through military conquest until officially breaking with the Fatimids in the mid-11th century. The rule of the Zirid emirs opened the way to a period in North African history where political power was held by Berber dynasties such as the Almoravid dynasty, Almohad Caliphate, Zayyanid dynasty, Marinid Sultanate and Hafsid dynasty.[6]
Under
The Zirids of Granada surrendered to the Almoravids in 1090,[17] but the Badicides and the Hammadids remained independent during this time. Sometime between 1041 and 1051 the Zirid ruler al-Mu'izz ibn Badis renounced the Fatimid Caliphs and recognized the Sunni Muslim Abbasid Caliphate.[18] In retaliation, the Fatimids instigated the migration of the Banu Hilal tribe to the Maghreb, dealing a serious blow to Zirid power in Ifriqiya.[19][20] In the 12th century, the Hilalian invasions combined with the attacks of the Normans of Sicily along the coast further weakened Zirid power. The last Zirid ruler, al-Hasan, surrendered Mahdia to the Normans in 1148, thus ending independent Zirid rule.[20] The Almohad Caliphate conquered the central Maghreb and Ifriqiya by 1160, ending the Hammadid dynasty in turn and finally unifying the whole of the Maghreb.[7][21]
History
Origins and establishment
The Zirids were Sanhaja Berbers, from the sedentary Talkata tribe,[22][23] originating from the area of modern Algeria. In the 10th century this tribe served as vassals of the Fatimid Caliphate, an Isma'ili Shi'a state that challenged the authority of the Sunni Abbasid caliphs. The progenitor of the Zirid dynasty, Ziri ibn Manad (r. 935–971) was installed as governor of the central Maghreb (roughly north-eastern Algeria today) on behalf of the Fatimids, guarding the western frontier of the Fatimid Caliphate.[24][25]
With Fatimid support Ziri founded his own capital and palace at
When the Fatimids moved their capital to
Buluggin soon led a
Buluggin's successors and the first divisions
After Buluggin's death, he was succeeded by his son Al-Mansur ibn Buluggin (r. 984–996). After his departure to the west in 979, Bulugin had not returned to Kairouan and during this time his appointee, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Katib, had amassed considerable power and influence in Ifriqiya. As a result, al-Mansur became involved in a confrontation with Abd Allah starting in 987. Later Zirid sources portray Abd Allah as a rebel who was aided by the Fatimid Caliphs, because the latter now preferred him over al-Mansur and wished to impose a new arrangement in Ifriqiya.[48] In the end, al-Mansur ordered the successful assassination of Abd Allah and his son. In 989–990 he also suppressed a revolt by the Kutama, the traditional source of the Fatimid army, under the leadership of a pretender named Abu'l-Faraj. Following these challenges, al-Mansur was finally able to reunify the Zirid realm, but he was obliged to move his principal residence from 'Ashir to al-Mansuriyya (Kairouan) in 991, leaving his brother Yattufat to govern 'Ashir.[49]
With al-Mansur's succession, the rule of the Zirid was now being passed on through the son of Buluggin and his descendants. This alienated the other sons of Ziri ibn Manad, who now found themselves excluded from power. In 999 many of these brothers launched a rebellion in 'Ashir against Badis ibn al-Mansur (r. 996–1016), Buluggin's grandson, marking the first serious break in the unity of the Zirids.[50] The rebels were defeated in battle by Hammad ibn Buluggin, Badis' uncle, and most of the brothers were killed. The only remaining brother of stature, Zawi ibn Ziri, led the remaining rebels westwards and sought new opportunity in al-Andalus under the Umayyads Caliphs of Cordoba, the former enemies of the Fatimids and Zirids.[50][51] He and his followers eventually founded an independent kingdom in al-Andalus, the Taifa of Granada, in 1013.[12][52]
After 1001 Tripolitania broke away under the leadership of Fulful ibn Sa'id ibn Khazrun, a Maghrawa leader who founded the Banu Khazrun dynasty, which endured until 1147.[53][10][11] Fulful fought a protracted war against Badis ibn al-Mansur and sought outside help from the Fatimids and even from the Umayyads of Cordoba, but after his death in 1009 the Zirids were able to retake Tripoli for a time. The region nonetheless remained effectively under control of the Banu Khazrun, who fluctuated between practical autonomy and full independence, often playing the Fatimids and the Zirids against each other.[54][55][10][56] The Zirids finally lost Tripoli to them in 1022.[57]
Badis appointed Hammad ibn Buluggin as governor of 'Ashir and the western Zirid territories in 997.[58] He gave Hammad a great deal of autonomy, allowing him to campaign against the Zanata and control any new territories he conquered.[59][29] Hammad constructed his own capital, the Qal'at Bani Hammad, in 1008, and in 1015 he rebelled against Badis and declared himself independent altogether, while also recognizing the Abbasids instead of the Fatimids as caliphs. Badis besieged Hammad's capital and nearly subdued him, but died in 1016 shortly before this could be accomplished. His son and successor, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (r. 1016–1062), defeated Hammad in 1017, which forced the negotiation of a peace agreement between them. Hammad resumed his recognition of the Fatimids as caliphs but remained independent, forging a new Hammadid state which controlled a large part of present-day Algeria thereafter.[60][59] Qal'at Bani Hammad was retained as the Hammadid capital, while 'Ashir became its second city.[26]
Apogee in Ifriqiya
The Zirid period of Ifriqiya is considered a high point in its history, with agriculture, industry, trade and learning, both religious and secular, all flourishing, especially in their capital,
In Sicily the Kalbids continued to govern on behalf of the Fatimids but the island descended into political disarray during the 11th century,[16] inciting the Zirids to intervene on the island. In 1025 (or 1021[65]), al-Mu'izz ibn Badis sent a fleet of 400 ships to the island in response to the Byzantines reconquering Calabria (in southern Italy) from the Muslims, but the fleet was lost in a powerful storm off the coast of Pantelleria.[29][65][66] In 1036, the Muslim population of the island request aid from al-Mu'izz to overthrow the Kalbid emir Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf al-Akḥal , whose rule they considered flawed and unjust.[16] The request also contained a pledge to recognize al-Mu'izz as their ruler.[65] Al-Mu'izz, eager to expand his influence after the fragmentation of Zirid North Africa, accepted and sent his son, 'Abdallah, to the island with a large army.[65][16][67] Al-Akhal, who had been in negotiations with the Byzantines, requested help from them. A Byzantine army intervened and defeated the Zirid army on the island, but it then withdrew to Calabria, allowing 'Abdallah to finish off al-Akhal.[16] Al-Akhal was besieged in Palermo and killed in 1038.[65][16][13] 'Abdallah was subsequently forced to withdraw from the island, either due to the ever-divided Sicilians turning against him or due to another Byzantine invasion in 1038, led by George Maniakes.[67][65] Another Kalbid amir, al-Hasan al-Samsam, was elected to govern Sicily, but Muslim rule there disintegrated into various petty factions leading up to the Norman conquest of the island in the second half of the 11th century.[68][16][65]
Hilalian invasions and withdrawal to Mahdia
The Zirids renounced the Fatimids and recognized the Abbasid Caliphs in 1048-49,[29] or sometime between 1041 and 1051.[a][69][70][13] The recognition of the Abbasids was nominal, as the Abbasids themselves were in political decline and could not impose direct authority in the region.[71] In retaliation against the Zirids, the Fatimids sent the Arab tribes of the Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym to the Maghreb.[59][29] The Banu Sulaym settled first in Cyrenaica, but the Banu Hilal continued towards Ifriqiya.[59] The Zirids attempted to stop their advance towards Ifriqiya, they sent 30,000 Sanhaja cavalry to meet the 3,000 Arab cavalry of Banu Hilal in the Battle of Haydaran of 14 April 1052.[72] Nevertheless, the Zirids were decisively defeated and were forced to retreat, opening the road to Kairouan for the Hilalian Arab cavalry.[72][3][73] The resulting anarchy devastated the previously flourishing agriculture, and the coastal towns assumed a new importance as conduits for maritime trade and bases for piracy against Christian shipping, as well as being the last holdout of the Zirids.[3] The Banu Hilal invasions eventually forced al-Mu'izz ibn Badis to abandon Kairouan in 1057 and move his capital to Mahdia, while the Banu Hilal largely roamed and pillaged the interior of the former Zirid territories.[15][29]
As a result of the Zirid withdrawal, various local principalities emerged in different areas. In Tunis, the shaykhs of the city elected Abd al-Haqq ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Khurasan (r. 1059-1095) as local ruler. He founded the local Banu Khurasan dynasty that governed the city thereafter, alternately recognizing the Hammadids or the Zirids as overlords depending on the circumstances.[74][75] In Qabis (Gabès), the Zirid governor, al-Mu'izz ibn Muhammad ibn Walmiya remained loyal until 1062 when, outraged by the expulsion of his two brothers from Mahdia by al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, he declared his independence and placed himself under the protection of Mu'nis ibn Yahya, a chief of Banu Hilal.[76][77] Sfaqus (Sfax) was declared independent by the Zirid governor, Mansur al-Barghawati, who was murdered and succeeded by his cousin Hammu ibn Malil al-Barghawati.[78]
Al-Mui'zz ibn Badis was succeeded by his son, Tamim ibn al-Mu'izz (r. 1062-1108), who spent much of his reign attempting to restore Zirid power in the region. In 1063 he repelled a siege of Mahdia by the independent ruler of Sfax while also capturing the important port of Sus (Sousse).[79] Meanwhile, the Hammadid ruler al-Nasir ibn 'Alannas (r. 1062-1088) began to intervene in Ifriqiya around this time, having his sovereignty recognized in Sfax, Tunis, and Kairouan. Tamim organized a coalition with some of the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes and succeeded in inflicting a heavy defeat on al-Nasir at the Battle of Sabiba in 1065. The war between the Zirids and Hammadids continued until 1077, when a truce was negotiated, sealed by a marriage between Tamim and one of al-Nasir's daughters.[80] In 1074 Tamim sent a naval expedition to Calabria where they ravaged the Italian coasts, plundered Nicotera and enslaved many of its inhabitants. The next year (1075) another Zirid raid resulted in the capture of Mazara in Sicily; however, the Zirid emir rethought his involvement in Sicily and decided to withdraw, abandoning what they had briefly held.[81] In 1087, the Zirid capital, Mahdia, was sacked by the Pisans.[82] According to Ettinghausen, Grabar, and Jenkins-Madina, the Pisa Griffin is believed to have been part of the spoils taken during the sack.[83] In 1083 Mahdia was besieged by a chief of the Banu Hilal, Malik ibn 'Alawi. Unable to take the city, Malik instead turned to Kairouan and captured that city, but Tamim marched out with his entire army and defeated the Banu Hilal forces, at which point he also brought Kairouan back under Zirid control.[84] He went on to capture Gabès in 1097 and Sfax in 1100.[84] Gabès, however, soon declared itself independent again under the leadership of the Banu Jami', a family from the Riyahi branch of the Banu Hilal.[77][76]
Tamim's son and successor, Yahya ibn Tamim (r. 1108-1116), formally recognized the Fatimid caliphs again and received an emissary from Cairo in 1111.[84] He captured an important fortress near Carthage called Iqlibiya and his fleet launched raids against Sardinia and Genoa, bringing back many captives.[84] He was assassinated in 1116 and succeeded by his son, 'Ali ibn Yahya (r. 1116-1121).[84] 'Ali continued to recognize the Fatimids, receiving another embassy from Cairo in 1118.[85] He imposed his authority on Tunis, but failed to recapture Gabès from its local ruler, Rafi' ibn Jami', whose counterattack he then had to repel from Mahdia.[85][76] He was succeeded by his son al-Hasan in 1121, the last Zirid ruler.[13]
End of Zirid rule
During the 1130s and 1140s the Normans of Sicily began to capture cities and islands along the coast of Ifriqiya.[86] Jerba was captured in 1135 and Tripoli was captured in 1146. In 1148, the Normans captured Sfax, Gabès, and Mahdia.[86][87] In Mahdia, the population was weakened by years of famine and the bulk of the Zirid army was away on another campaign when the Norman fleet, commanded by George of Antioch, arrived off the coast. Al-Hasan decided to abandon the city, leaving it to be occupied, which effectively ended the Zirid dynasty's rule.[29][88] Al-Hasan fled to the citadel of al-Mu'allaqa near Carthage and stayed there for a several months. He planned to flee to the Fatimid court in Egypt but the Norman fleet blocked his way, so instead he headed west, making for the Almohad court of 'Abd al-Mu'min in Marrakesh. He obtained permission from Yahya ibn al-'Aziz, the Hammadid ruler, to cross his territory, but after entering Hammadid territory he was detained and placed under house arrest in Algiers.[88][29] When 'Abd al-Mu'min captured Algiers in 1151, he freed al-Hasan, who accompanied him back to Marrakesh. Later, when 'Abd al-Mu'min conquered Mahdia in 1160, placing all of Ifriqiya under Almohad rule, al-Hasan was with him.[29][21] 'Abd al-Mu'min appointed him governor of Mahdia, where he remained, residing in the suburb of Zawila, until 'Abd al-Mu'min's death in 1163. The new Almohad caliph, Abu Ya'qub Yusuf, subsequently ordered him to come back to Marrakesh, but al-Hasan died along the way in Tamasna in 1167.[29][13]
Economy
The Zirid period was a time of great economic prosperity. The departure of the Fatimids to Cairo, far from ending this prosperity, saw its amplification under the Zirid and Hammadid rulers. Referring to the government of the Zirid emir al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, the historian
The Arab chronicler Ibn Hawqal visited and described the city of Algiers in the Zirid era: "The city of Algiers is built on a gulf and surrounded by a wall. It contains a large number of bazaars and a few sources of good water near the sea. It is from these sources that the inhabitants draw the water they drink. In the outbuildings of this town are very extensive countryside and mountains inhabited by several tribes of the Berbers. The chief wealth of the inhabitants consists of herds of cattle and sheep grazing in the mountains. Algiers supplies so much honey that it forms an export object, and the quantity of butter, figs and other commodities is so great that it is exported to Kairouan and elsewhere".[89]
Culture
Literature
Abd al-Aziz ibn Shaddad was a Zirid chronicler and prince.[92] He wrote Kitab al-Jam' wa 'l-bayan fi akhbar al-Qayrawan (كتاب الجمع والبيان في أخبار القيروان) about the history of Qayrawan.[92] Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, the Zirid ruler, was also himself an author and wrote an important treatise on the arts of the book, covering subjects such as calligraphy, bookbinding, and illumination.[91][93]
Architecture
The Zirid dynasty was responsible for various constructions and renovations throughout the Maghreb. Zirid and Hammadid architecture in North Africa was closely linked to
The Hammadids, for their part, built an entirely new fortified capital at Qal'at Bani Hammad, founded in 1007. Although abandoned and destroyed in the 12th century, the city has been studied by modern archeologists and is one of the best-preserved medieval Islamic capitals in the world.[106] The Zirid branch in Granada was also responsible for turning it into one of the major cities of al-Andalus. Among the surviving remains of the Zirid period in Granada today are a section of its original city walls, an extensive system of cisterns on the Albaicín hill, and the former minaret of a mosque (now part of the Church of San José).[107]
Art
The Zirids were also patrons of the arts. Important examples of woodwork commissioned for mosques have survived from this period.
Zirid art is also known for its decorated manuscripts.
List of Zirid rulers
The following list includes the Zirid rulers who ruled in the Maghreb:[13][116]
- Ziri ibn Manad, d. 971 CE (as Fatimid governor)
- Buluggin ibn Ziri, 972–984 (as viceroy of the Fatimids in Ifriqiya and the Maghreb)
- al-Mansur ibn Buluggin, 984–996
- Badis ibn al-Mansur, 996–1016
After 1015, the Hammadid branch ruled in the central Maghreb while the descendants of Badis ibn al-Mansur continued to rule in Ifriqiya:[13][116]
- al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, 1016–1062
- Tamim ibn al-Mu'izz, 1062–1108
- Yahya ibn Tamim, 1108–1116
- Ali ibn Yahya, 1116–1121
- al-Hasan ibn Ali, 1121–1148
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Offshoots of the Zirid dynasty
Zirids of Granada
After the rebellion of Buluggin's brothers failed in 999, Zawi ibn Ziri sought to move to al-Andalus, which was under Umayyad control. The
In 1018 the Umayyad pretender
Hammadid dynasty
Hammad ibn Buluggin, the son of Buluggin and uncle of Badis ibn al-Mansur, was appointed governor of 'Ashir in 997 and given a great deal of autonomy, even going so far as to build a new capital for himself, known as the Qal'a Bani Hammad.[58] The split between Hammad and his nephew came when Badis declared his son as heir and attempted to designate a part of Hammad's territory as a new principality to be governed by the crown prince. Hammad refused to let this happen and responded by ordering the name of the Fatimid caliph to be replaced with the Abbasid caliph in the khutba (Friday sermon) in mosques, a clear departure from Zirid political allegiances.[126] A closely-fought war ended with Hammad and al-Mu'izz ibn Badis concluding a peace agreement which allowed Hammad to retain his effective independence.[126]
The Hammadid state reached its apogee under the reign of al-Nasir ibn 'Alannas (r. 1062-1088) during which it was briefly the most important state in the Maghreb.
See also
- List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
- Ar-Raqiq, a courtier, poet and historian, secretary to al-Muizz ibn Badis.
References
Notes
Citations
- ISBN 978-0-292-76190-2.
- ^ a b "Zirid Dynasty | Muslim dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 February 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
- ^ ISSN 0007-9731.
- ^ ISBN 9782228887892.
- ^ "Qantara - Les Zirides et les Hammadides (972-1152)". www.qantara-med.org. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
- ISBN 9780852550939.
- ^ ISBN 9782707152312.
- ISBN 9782296139640.
- ISBN 978-1-134-25986-1.
- ^ a b c d Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 67.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-900971-00-3.
- ^ ISBN 9781317870418.
- ^ ISBN 9780748696482.
- ISBN 978-2-200-28342-1.
- ^ a b Abun-Nasr 1987, pp. 69–70.
- ^ ISBN 9789004161214.
- ISBN 9780748696482.
- ^ a b Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 68-69.
- ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 69-70.
- ^ a b c Tibi 2002, p. 514.
- ^ a b Baadj 2015, p. 56-57.
- ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 64.
- ISBN 978-0-8108-6490-0.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 54, 63.
- ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 19.
- ^ ISBN 9789004161658.
It consisted of two palatial citadels on the separate sites called Yashīr and Bénia (Banya). The first was founded in 324/936 by Zīrī b. Manād, the Talkāta ally of the Fāṭimid caliph al-Qāʾim (r. 322–34/934–45), to secure the central Maghrib against the Zanāta allies of Córdoba; a substantial palace was built after the suppression of the rebellion of the Zanāta Abū Yazīd in 336/947. The second, with the remains of a mosque, was built by Zīrī's son Buluggīn (Ar. Buluqqīn, the founder of the Zīrid dynasty, r. 362–73/972–83) after his appointment in 362/972 as Fāṭimid viceroy of Ifrīqiya. After the departure of Buluggīn's son al-Manṣūr to take up residence at al-Qayrawān in 381/991, Ashīr remained the Zīrid capital of the central Maghrib until the foundation of the Qalʿa (Fortress) of the Banū Ḥammād in 398/1007, when it became the second city of the Ḥammādids. In ruins between 440/1048–9 and 455/1063 following a dynastic quarrel, it was repopulated as a market town before its desertion sometime after al-Idrīsī wrote in the mid-sixth/twelfth century.
- ^ a b Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 66.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 54.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Tibi 2002.
- ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 188.
- ^ Halm 1996, p. 399.
- ISBN 9780292766655
- ISBN 978-90-04-08112-3
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 75.
- ISBN 978-1-317-87041-8.
- ^ Halm 1996, p. 418.
- ISBN 978-90-04-09834-3.
- ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 75.
- ^ a b c Brett 1975, p. 624.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 85.
- ^ JSTOR 4629221.
- ^ Georges Marçais (1955). L'architecture musulmane d'occident: Tunisie, Algérie, Maroc, Espagne et Sicile. Arts et métiers graphiques. p. 64.
Leur rôle était double et double leur domaine, avec ses deux capitales d'Achir, donjon du territoire héréditaire, et Kairouan, centre de l'administration. Ce domaine était trop grand: il se brisa. Les parents, auxquels les nouveaux maitres de l'Ifriqya avaient confié la tâche de continuer la lutte contre les Zenâta, se déclarèrent indépendants dans les provinces qu'ils défendaient. Dès lors la Berbérie fâtimite compta deux royaumes çanhâjiens: à l'Est, le royaume des BeniZirî de Kairouan, à l'Ouest le royaume des Beni Hammâd de la Qal'a.
- ISBN 978-0-292-76190-2.
- ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 67, 75.
- ^ Idris 1962, pp. 57–58.
- ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.
- ISBN 978-1-134-25986-1.
- ^ Brett 1975, pp. 624–626.
- ^ Brett 1975, p. 626.
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Sources
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- Brett, Michael (1975). "The Fatimid revolution (861-973) and its aftermath in North Africa". In Fage, J.D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony (eds.). The Cambridge History of Africa. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 589–636. ISBN 978-0-521-21592-3.
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- Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn, eds. (2001). Islamic Art and Architecture, 650-1250. Yale University Press.
- Idris, Hady Roger (1962). La berbérie orientale sous les Zīrīdes: Xe-XIIe siècles (PDF) (in French). Paris: Librarie d'Amérique et d'Orient.
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- Historical map showing location of Zirid Kingdom c. 1000
Further reading
- King, Matt (2022). Dynasties Intertwined: The Zirids of Ifriqiya and the Normans of Sicily. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9781501763472.