British space programme
First flight | 27 June 1969 (Black Arrow) |
---|---|
Successes | 2 |
Failures | 2 |
The British space programme is the
The first official British space programme began in 1952. In 1959, the first satellite programme was started, with the
During the 1960s and 1970s, a number of efforts were made to develop a British satellite launch capability. A British rocket named
The British National Space Centre was established in 1985 to co-ordinate British government agencies and other interested bodies in the promotion of British participation in the international market for satellite launches, satellite construction and other space endeavours.
In 2010, many of the various separate sources of space-related funding were combined and allocated to the centre's replacement, the
Origins
Scientific interest in space travel existed in the United Kingdom prior to
As with the other post-war space-faring nations, the British government's initial interest in space was primarily military. Early programmes reflected this interest. As with other nations, much of the rocketry knowledge was obtained from captured German scientists who were persuaded to work for the British. The British performed the earliest post-war tests of captured
From 1957, British space astronomy used
History
British satellite programmes (1959–present)
Early satellite programmes
The
In 1971, the last Black Arrow (R3) launched
Military communications satellite programme
Skynet is a purely military programme, operating a set of communications satellites on behalf of the Ministry of Defence (MoD), to provide communication services to the three branches of the British Armed Forces and to NATO and allied governments. The first satellite was launched in 1969, becoming the first military satellite in geostationary orbit, and the most recent in 2012. As of 2020, seven Skynet satellites are operating and providing coverage of almost the whole globe.
Skynet is the most expensive British space project, although as a military initiative it is not part of the civil space programme. The MoD is currently specifying the Skynet 6 architecture to replace the Skynet 5 model satellites, which is expected to cost about £6 billion.[8][9]
Intelligence satellite programmes
During the
It was to be launched on a
On 30 November 2018, it was announced that the United Kingdom Global Navigation Satellite System (UKGNSS) would not be affiliated with the European Space Agency's Galileo satellite system after Britain completed its withdrawal from the European Union. Instead, it was initially planned that the UK Space Agency would operate an independent satellite system.[10] However, on 25 September 2020, The Daily Telegraph reported that the United Kingdom Global Navigation Satellite System project had been scrapped. The project, deemed unnecessary and too expensive, would be replaced with a new project exploring alternative ways to provide satellite navigation services.[11]
OneWeb satellite constellation
In July 2020, the United Kingdom government and India's
OneWeb commenced launches of the
British space vehicles (1950–1985)
Beginning in 1950, the UK developed and launched several
A major
By 1972, British government funding of both Blue Streak and Black Arrow had ceased, and no further government-backed British space rockets were developed. Other space agencies, notably NASA, were used for subsequent launches of British satellites. Communication with the Prospero X-3 was terminated in 1996.
Falstaff, a British hypersonic test rocket, was launched from Woomera between 1969 and 1979.
In 1960 the British Space Development Company, a consortium of thirteen large industrial companies, was set up by Robert Renwick, 1st Baron Renwick to plan the world's first commercial communication satellite company, Renwick becoming the executive director. With Blue Streak, Britain had the technology to make it possible, but the idea was rejected by the British government on the grounds that such a system could not be envisaged in the next 20 years (1961–1981). The United States would eventually set up COMSAT in 1963, resulting in Intelsat, a large fleet of commercial satellites. The first of Intelsat's fleet, Intelsat I, was launched in April 1965.[18]
The official national space programme was revived in 1982 when the British government funded the
National space programme (1985–2010)
In 1985, the British National Space Centre (BNSC) was formed to coordinate British space activities.[19] The BNSC was a significant contributor to the general budget of the European Space Agency, and in 2005 paid 17.7% of the costs of the mandatory programmes, making it the second largest contributor.[20] Through BNSC, the UK also took part in ESA's optional programmes such as Aurora, the robotic exploration initiative.
The UK decided not to contribute funds for the International Space Station, on the basis that it did not represent value for money.[21] The British government did not take part in any crewed space endeavours during this period.
The United Kingdom continued to contribute scientific elements to satellite launches and space projects. The British probe Beagle 2, sent as part of the ESA's 2003 Mars Express mission to study the planet Mars, was lost when it failed to respond. The probe was found in 2015[22] by NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and it has been concluded while it did land successfully, one of the solar arrays failed to deploy, blocking the communication antenna.
United Kingdom Space Agency (2010 – present)
On 1 April 2010, the government established the UK Space Agency, an agency responsible for the British space programme. It replaced the British National Space Centre and now has responsibility for government policy and key budgets for space, as well as representing the UK in all negotiations on space matters.
As of 2015, the UK Space Agency provides 9.9% of the European Space Agency budget.[23]
Reaction Engines Skylon
The British government partnered with the
2011 budget boost and reforms
The British government proposed reform to the Outer Space Act 1986 in several areas, including the liabilities that cover space operations, in order to enable British companies' space endeavours to better compete with international competitors. There was also a proposal of a £10 million boost in capital investment, to be matched by industry.[28]
Commercial spaceports
In July 2014, the government announced that it would build a
As of 2020, UKSA is supporting the development of three space launch sites in the UK. The proposed sites for spaceports, and the companies associated with them, are as follows:
- SaxaVord Spaceport – Unst, Shetland Islands[32]
- Space Hub Sutherland – Sutherland, Scotland[35]
- Spaceport Cornwall – Newquay Airport, Cornwall, England[36]
- Virgin Orbit, which ceased operations in 2023[37]
Space Industry Act 2018
In June 2017, the government introduced a bill leading to the Space Industry Act 2018 which created a regulatory framework for the expansion of commercial space activities. This covered the development of British spaceports, for both orbital and sub-orbital activities, and launches and other activities overseas by UK entities.[38][39]
Commercial and private space activities
The first Briton in space, cosmonaut-researcher Helen Sharman, was funded by a private consortium without British government assistance whilst the government of the Soviet Union made up for the shortfall in the private funding. Interest in space continues in the UK's private sector, including satellite design and manufacture, developing designs for space planes and catering to the new market in space tourism.
Project Juno
Project Juno was a privately funded campaign, which selected Helen Sharman to be the first Briton in space. A private consortium was formed to raise money to pay the USSR for a seat on a Soyuz mission to the Mir space station. The USSR had recently flown Toyohiro Akiyama, a Japanese journalist, by a similar arrangement.
A call for applicants was publicised in the UK resulting in the selection of four astronauts: Helen Sharman, Major Timothy Mace, Clive Smith and Surgeon Lieutenant Commander Gordon Brooks. Sharman was eventually chosen for the first of what was hoped to be a number of flights with Major Timothy Mace as her backup. The cost of the flight was to be funded by various innovative schemes, including sponsoring by private British companies and a lottery system. Corporate sponsors included British Aerospace, Memorex, and Interflora, and television rights were sold to ITV.
Ultimately the Juno consortium failed to raise the entire sum and the USSR considered canceling the mission. It is believed that Mikhail Gorbachev directed the mission to proceed at Soviet cost.
Sharman was launched aboard Soyuz TM-12 on 18 May 1991, and returned aboard Soyuz TM-11 on 26 May 1991.
Surrey Satellite Technology
Virgin Galactic
Virgin Galactic, a US company within the British-based Virgin Group owned by Sir Richard Branson, is taking reservations for suborbital space flights from the general public. Its operations will use SpaceShipTwo space planes designed by Scaled Composites, which has previously developed the Ansari X-Prize winning SpaceShipOne.
Blue Origin
A private aerospace company owned by Jeff Bezos has multiple plans for space. On June 4, 2022, on its fifth flight, Blue Origin NS-21, Hamish Harding became the 8th British astronaut (reaching an apogee 107km) to reach space.[40] On August 4, 2022, on its sixth flight, Blue Origin NS-22, Vanessa O'Brien became the 9th British astronaut and 2nd female British astronaut (reaching an apogee 107km) to reach space, while conducting an overview study on the human brain.[41]
British contribution to other space programmes
Communication and tracking of rockets and satellites in orbit is achieved using stations such as
As well as providing tracking facilities for other nations, scientists from the United Kingdom have participated in other nation's space programmes, notably contributing to the development of NASA's early space programmes,[43] and co-operation with Australian launches.[44]
The
The concept of the communications satellite was by Arthur C. Clarke.
British astronauts
Because the British government has never developed a crewed spaceflight programme and initially did not contribute funding to the crewed space flight part of ESA's activities, the first six British astronauts launched with either the American or Soviet/Russian space programmes. Despite this, on 9 October 2008, British Science and Innovation Minister Lord Drayson spoke favourably of the idea of a British astronaut.[45] Army Air Corps test pilot Tim Peake became a member of the European Astronaut Corps in 2009,[46] and then in 2015 the first astronaut funded by the British government when he reached the International Space Station aboard a Soyuz rocket launched from Baikonur in Kazakhstan.[47][48]
To date, seven UK-born British citizens[49][50][51] and two non-UK-born British citizen have flown in space:[52][49][53][54]
Name | Birthplace | Missions | First launch date | ies
|
---|---|---|---|---|
Helen Sharman | Grenoside, Sheffield, South Yorkshire | Soyuz TM-12/11 | 18 May 1991 | |
First British astronaut (and in particular, the first British cosmonaut) as well as the first woman to visit the Mir space station. Funded partially by private British citizens as Project Juno and by the Soviet Union. | ||||
Michael Foale | Louth, Lincolnshire | STS-45 (Atlantis) STS-56 (Discovery) STS-63 (Discovery) STS-84/86 (Atlantis) STS-103 (Discovery) Soyuz TMA-3 |
24 March 1992 | / |
NASA astronaut. Born and grew up in the UK with dual UK/US citizenship, his mother being American. First British spacewalker. First Briton to both Mir and International Space Station. | ||||
Mark Shuttleworth | Welkom, Orange Free State, South Africa | Soyuz TM-34/33 | 27 April 2002 | / |
Self-funded space tourist to the International Space Station. Born a South African, he also holds British citizenship.
| ||||
Piers Sellers | Crowborough, Sussex | STS-112 (Atlantis) STS-121 (Discovery) STS-132 (Atlantis) |
7 October 2002 | / |
NASA astronaut. Born and grew up in the UK, US citizen after 1991. | ||||
Nicholas Patrick | Saltburn-by-the-Sea, North Yorkshire | STS-116 (Discovery) STS-130 (Endeavour) |
9 December 2006 | / |
NASA astronaut. Born and grew up in the UK, US citizen since 1994. | ||||
Richard Garriott | Cambridge, Cambridgeshire | Soyuz TMA-13/12 | 12 October 2008 | / |
Self-funded space tourist to the International Space Station. Born in the UK to American parents (son of Skylab astronaut Owen Garriott). | ||||
Timothy Peake | Chichester, West Sussex | Soyuz TMA-19M | 15 December 2015 | |
ESA astronaut. First British government-funded Briton in space and aboard the International Space Station. | ||||
Hamish Harding | Hammersmith, London , United Kingdom
|
Blue Origin NS-21 | 4 June 2022 | / |
Self-funded, space flight participant. Flew on Blue Origin NS-21 on June 4, 2022. | ||||
Vanessa O'Brien | Michigan, USA | Blue Origin NS-22 | 4 August 2022 | / |
Flew on Blue Origin NS-22 on August 4, 2022. Funding offset to conduct overview effect research study on the human brain. Emigrated to United Kingdom in 1999. |
Potential astronauts
US Air Force Colonel Gregory H. Johnson served as pilot on two Endeavour missions (STS-123 and STS-134). Although born in the UK while his father was stationed at a US Air Force base, he has never been a British citizen and is not otherwise associated with the UK. He is sometimes incorrectly listed as a British astronaut.[49][50][55][56][note 1]
Anthony Llewellyn (born in Cardiff, Wales) was selected as a scientist-astronaut by NASA during August 1967 but resigned during September 1968, having never flown in space.
Former RAF pilot David Mackay was appointed as Chief Pilot by Virgin Galactic in 2009, and is participating in the flight test programme of the suborbital spaceplane SpaceShipTwo.
Singer/songwriter and actress
On 1 July 2021
The 2022 European Space Agency Astronaut Group includes three British citizens as candidates – Rosemary Coogan (career), Meganne Christian (reserve), and John McFall (parastronaut).
In fiction
Notable fictional depictions of British spacecraft or Britons in space include:
- "H.G.Wells (The Strand MagazineOriginally Serialized December 1900 to August 1901 and published in hardcover in 1901).
- "How We Went to Mars" by Sir Arthur C. Clarke (Amateur Science Fiction Stories March 1938).
- Dan Dare, Pilot of the Future (comics, 1950–1967, 1980s).
- Journey into Space (radio, 1953–1955).
- The Quatermass Experiment (television, 1953).
- Hugh Walters(1957).
- Doctor Who (television) – "The Ambassadors of Death" (1970), "The Christmas Invasion" (2005), "The Waters of Mars" (2009).
- The Goodies - "Invasion of the Moon Creatures" (television, 1973).
- Moonbase 3 (television, 1973).
- Come Back Mrs. Noah (television, 1977).
- Moonraker (1979).
- Lifeforce (1985).
- Star Cops (television, 1987).
- Red Dwarf (television, 1988–1999, 2009).
- A Grand Day Out with Wallace and Gromit(short stop-motion film, 1989)
- Ministry of Space (comics, 2001–2004).
- Space Cadets (TV series) (television, 2005).
- Hyperdrive (TV series) (television, 2006–2007).
- "Capsule" Sci Fi Movie (2015).
- "Peppa Pig"— "Grampy Rabbit in Space" Cartoon (2012).
See also
- John Hodge (engineer) – British-born aerospace engineer who worked for NASA
- National Space Centre – visitor centre in Leicester
- United Kingdom Space Command – military space command established in 2021
Notes
- ^ The BBC reference does not mention his father's US Air Force connection, and includes the astronaut under 'Britons' in space.
References
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- ^ "UK vision to stay at the forefront of space sector published". BNSC. Archived from the original on 2 June 2009. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
- ^ Sample, Ian (14 February 2008). "UK carves out its place in space, but hopes for Britons on moon dashed". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
- .
- ^ "Megaroc". The British Interplanetary Society. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
- S2CID 144418241.
- ^ "Prospero May Be Last U.K. Satellite". Calgary Herald. Calgary, Alberta. The London Times. 3 November 1971. p. 9 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ Erwin, Sandra (6 November 2018). "UK MoD still undecided on how to procure satellite communications". SpaceNews. Retrieved 21 July 2019.
- ^ Chuter, Andrew (22 May 2020). "UK nears final stage of Skynet competition". c4isrnet.com. Sightline Media. Retrieved 22 February 2021.
- ^ "Minister quits over 'naive' Brexit deal". BBC News. 1 December 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
- ^ Diver, Tony (25 September 2020). "Britain scraps satellite programme designed to replace Galileo after Brexit". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 25 September 2020.
- ^ "U.K. takes £400m stake in satellite firm OneWeb". BBC News. 3 July 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
- ^ Henry, Caleb (19 July 2020). "British military finalizes Skynet-6A contract with Airbus". SpaceNews. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
- ^ Hollinger, Peggy (2 July 2020). "UK gamble on OneWeb signals more interventionist space policy". Financial Times. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
"The real end game here is SkyNet," said one industry executive, referring to the military grade constellation that for 17 years has been operated by Airbus, and whose contract is soon coming to an end.
- ^ Hanneke, Weitering (27 February 2019). "Soyuz Rocket Will Launch the 1st OneWeb Satellites Today". Space.com. Retrieved 27 February 2019.
- ^ "OneWeb emerges from Chapter 11 with new CEO". BBC News. 18 December 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
- ^ UK Registry of Outer Space Objects (PDF) (Report). UK Space Agency. October 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
- ^ "Intelsat's Satellite Communication Highlights from the 60's | Intelsat S.A." 13 December 2013. Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
- ^ "BNSC:How we work". Archived from the original on 19 December 2008. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
- ^ "BNSC and ESA". Archived from the original on 20 April 2009. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
- ^ "Space station 'not worth' joining". BBC News. BBC. 18 February 1999. Retrieved 18 June 2013.
- ^ Mike Wall (16 January 2015). "UK's Lost Beagle 2 Mars Lander, Missing Since 2003, Found in NASA Photos". Space.com.
- ^ "ESA budget 2015". ESA. 15 January 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2020.
- ^ Messier, Doug (22 September 2010). "UKSA Reviews Skylon and SABRE". Parabolic Arc.
- ^ "Reaction Engines Limited FAQ". Archived from the original on 2 June 2015.
- ^ "Skylon System Requirements Review". Archived from the original on 26 September 2010. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
- ^ Robert Parkinson (22 February 2011). "SSTO spaceplane is coming to Great Britain". The Global Herald. Space:The Development of Single Stage Flight. Archived from the original on 23 February 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
- ^
Amos, Jonathan (23 March 2011). "UK space given boost from Budget". BBC. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
reforms are designed to lower the sector's insurance costs and to make it easier for future space tourism companies to operate out of the UK. The government says it has recognised the success the British space sector has achieved in recent years and wants to offer it further support to maintain and grow its global market position.
- ^ McKie, Robin (13 July 2014). "Britain plans to build commercial spaceport". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
- ^ McArdle, Helen (20 May 2016). "UK spaceport competition axed in favour of licensing model". HeraldScotland. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
- ^ "UK spaceport proposed for Sutherland site". BBC News. 16 July 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
- ^ "Lift-off for Shetland spaceport". gov.uk. 22 October 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
- ^ Foust, Jeff (7 February 2021). "Lockheed Martin selects ABL Space Systems for UK launch". SpaceNews. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
- ^ Selding, Peter B. de (22 May 2023). "SaxaVord Spaceport secures $173 million in debt financing, says UK launch support should focus on commercial viability". Space Intel Report. Retrieved 24 August 2023.
- ^ Pultarova, Tereza (10 October 2019). "Space Hub Sutherland". Space.com.
- ^ Whitehouse, Richard; Matthews, Chris (18 September 2019). "Cornwall Spaceport latest – Council cabinet agrees £12million funding". Cornwall Live. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
- ^ Roulette, Joey (4 April 2023). "Branson's Virgin Orbit files for bankruptcy after launch failure squeezed finances". Reuters. Retrieved 24 August 2023.
- ^ Hutton, Georgina (2 February 2018). "The Space Industry Bill 2017-2019". House of Commons Library. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
- ^ Puschman, Nicholas; et al. (August 2020). "One giant (regulatory) leap for UK spaceflight: the launch of the UK Government's consultation on the supporting regulations to the Space Industry Act 2018". Bird & Bird. Retrieved 10 March 2021.
- ^ Nasir, Sarwat. "British explorer based in UAE to launch into space on Blue Origin flight". The National. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
- ^ Clash, Jim. "Private-Sector Space Experiments Could Add To Mankind's Knowledge Bank. Keep An Open Mind". Forbes. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
- ^ Grahn, Sven. "Jodrell Bank's role in early space tracking activities - Part 1". The University of Manchester. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
- Eugene Kranz, Failure is not an Option
- ^ "Black Arrow History". Wight Aviation Museum. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
- ^ "Minister wants astronaut 'icon'". 9 October 2008 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
- ^ "Europe unveils British astronaut". BBC News. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ "Tim Peake begins stay on international space station". BBC. 15 December 2015. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
- ^ "UK astronaut Tim Peake returns to Earth". BBC. 18 June 2016. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-319-57907-8.
- ^ a b "Tim Peake launch: The seven Britons to go to space". BBC. 15 December 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
- ^ Nasir, Sarwat. "British explorer based in UAE to launch into space on Blue Origin flight". The National. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
- ^ "For the next generation of astronauts to shoot for the moon, a STEM education is vital". City A.M. 29 August 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2017.
- ISBN 978-1-4962-1420-1.
- ^ Clash, Jim. "Private-Sector Space Experiments Could Add To Mankind's Knowledge Bank. Keep An Open Mind". Forbes. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
- ^ "Johnson, Gregory H". www.astronautix.com. Archived from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-4962-1420-1.
- ^ "Virgin Galactic Announces First Fully Crewed Spaceflight". Virgin Galactic. 1 July 2021. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
External links
- UK Space Agency
- History of British rocketry[usurped]
- Rocketeers.co.uk – UK space news blog
- Information on Blue Streak[usurped]
- History of HOTOL
- Virgin Galactic
- UK made 'fundamental space mistake'
- BBC Report on SST
- BBC, 24 March 2011, article on recent UK government announcement contrasted with recent French government funding increases.
- Other resources
- Hill, C.N., A Vertical Empire: The History of the UK Rocket and Space Programme, 1950–1971
- Millard, Douglas, An Overview of United Kingdom Space Activity 1957–1987, ESA Publications.
- Erik Seedhouse: Tim Peake and Britains's road to space. Springer, Cham 2017, ISBN 978-3-319-57906-1.