adopted writing system in the world,[13] being used for over 120 languages.[14]
The
Indic scripts, such as Bengali-Assamese or Gurmukhi, but a closer examination reveals they are very similar except for angles and structural emphasis.[9]
Among the languages using it as a primary or secondary script are
Nandināgarī script commonly found in numerous ancient manuscripts of South India,[19][20] and it is distantly related to a number of southeast Asian scripts.[14]
Etymology
Devanāgarī is formed by the addition of the word deva (देव) to the word nāgarī (नागरी). Nāgarī is an adjective derived from nagara (नगर), a Sanskrit word meaning "town" or "city," and literally means "urban" or "urbane".[21] The word Nāgarī (implicitly modifying lipi, "script") was used on its own to refer to a North Indian script, or perhaps a number of such scripts, as Al-Biruni attests in the 11th century; the form Devanāgarī is attested later, at least by the 18th century.[22] The name of the Nandināgarī script is also formed by adding a prefix to the generic script name nāgarī. The precise origin and significance of the prefix deva remains unclear.
The Nāgarī script was in regular use by the 7th century CE, and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium.
Mahajani
) used for administration, commerce, and other daily uses.
Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. An early version of Devanāgarī is visible in the Kutila inscription of Bareilly dated to VS 1049 (992 CE), which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group letters belonging to a word.[1] One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit texts from the early post-Maurya period consists of 1,413 Nāgarī pages of a commentary by Patanjali, with a composition date of about 150 BCE, the surviving copy transcribed about 14th century CE.[30]
Examples of Devanāgarī manuscripts created between the 18th and 19th centuries
Evolution from Brahmi to Gupta, and to Devanagari[31]
Nepali princess and to find a writing system suitable for the Tibetan language. He then invented the Tibetan script based on the Nāgarī used in Kashmir. He added 6 new characters for sounds that did not exist in Sanskrit.[32]
Other scripts closely related to Nāgarī (such as Siddhaṃ) were introduced throughout East and Southeast Asia from the 7th to the 10th centuries CE: notably in Indonesia, Vietnam, and Japan.[33][34]
Most of the Southeast Asian scripts have roots in Dravidian scripts, but a few found in south-central regions of Java and isolated parts of southeast Asia resemble Devanāgarī or its prototypes. The Kawi script in particular is similar to the Devanāgarī in many respects, though the morphology of the script has local changes. The earliest inscriptions in the Devanāgarī-like scripts are from around the 10th century CE, with many more between the 11th and 14th centuries.[35][36]
Some of the old-Devanāgarī inscriptions are found in Hindu temples of Java, such as the
John Norman Miksic and Goh Geok Yian, the 8th century version of early Nāgarī or Devanāgarī script was adopted in Java, Bali, and Khmer around the 8th–9th centuries, as evidenced by the many contemporaneous inscriptions of this period.[39]
A few palm leaves from the Buddhist Sanskrit text Shisyalekha composed in the 5th century by Candragomin. Shisyalekha was written in Devanāgarī script by a Nepalese scribe in 1084 CE. The manuscript is in the Cambridge University library.[40]
Letters
The
letter order of Devanāgarī, like nearly all Brāhmic scripts, is based on phonetic principles that consider both the manner and place of articulation of the consonants and vowels they represent. This arrangement is usually referred to as the varṇamālā ("garland of letters").[41] The format of Devanāgarī for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application, with minor variations or additions, to other languages.[42]
to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the system".
Another diacritic is the
nasal preceding another consonant:[46] e.g., हँसी[ɦə̃si] "laughter", गंगा[ɡəŋɡɑ] "the Ganges". When an akṣara has a vowel diacritic above the top line, that leaves no room for the candra ("moon") stroke candrabindu, which is dispensed with in favour of the lone dot:[47]हूँ[ɦũ] "am", but हैं[ɦɛ̃] "are". Some writers and typesetters dispense with the "moon" stroke altogether, using only the dot in all situations.[48]
The
long vowel lost to coalescence is sometimes marked with a double avagraha: सदाऽऽत्माsadā'tmā ( ← सदाsadā + आत्माātmā) "always, the self".[49] In Hindi, Snell (2000:77) states that its "main function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout": आईऽऽऽ!āīīī!. In Madhyadeshi languages like Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili, etc. which have "quite a number of verbal forms that end in that inherent vowel",[50]
the avagraha is used to mark the non-elision of word-final inherent a, which otherwise is a modern orthographic convention: बइठऽbaiṭha "sit" versus बइठbaiṭh
The syllabic consonants ॠṝ, ऌḷ, and ॡḹ are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the varṇamālā of other languages. The sound represented by ṛ has also been largely lost in the modern languages, and its pronunciation now ranges from [ɾɪ] (Hindi) to [ɾu] (Marathi).
ḹ is not an actual phoneme of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters.[42]
There are non-regular formations of रुru, रूrū, and हृhṛ.
There are two more vowels in
RP English pronunciation of ⟨a⟩ in act, and [ɒ], similar to the RP pronunciation of ⟨o⟩ in cot. These vowels are sometimes used in Hindi too, as in डॉलरdôlar ("dollar").[51] IAST transliteration is not defined. In ISO 15919
, the transliteration is ê and ô, respectively.
Kashmiri Devanagari uses letters like ॳ, ॴ, ॶ, ॷ, ऎ, ऒ, औ, ॵ to represent its vowels (see Kashmiri language#Devanagari).
implosives are accommodated with a line attached below: ॻ[ɠə], ॼ[ʄə], ॾ[ɗə], ॿ
[ɓə].
ligatures
with हha: म्हmha, न्हnha, ण्हṇha, व्हvha, ल्हlha, ळ्हḷha, र्हrha.
Masica (1991:147) notes Marwari as using ॸ for ḍa[ɗə] (while ड represents [ɽə]).
Devanagari used to write Avestan uses letters like ॹ /ʒ/ to represent its sounds.
For a list of all 297 (33×9) possible Sanskrit consonant-short vowel syllables see
Āryabhaṭa
.
Vowel diacritics
Table: Consonants with vowel diacritics. Vowels in their independent form on the top and in their corresponding dependent form (vowel sign) combined with the consonant 'k' on the bottom. 'ka' is without any added vowel sign, where the vowel 'a' is inherent.
a
ā
ê
ô
i
ī
u
ū
e
ē
ai
o
ō
au
r̥
r̥̄
l̥
l̥̄
ṁ
ḥ
अ
आ
ॲ
ऑ
इ
ई
उ
ऊ
ऎ
ए
ऐ
ऒ
ओ
औ
ऋ
ॠ
ऌ
ॡ
अं
अः
ka
kā
kê
kô
ki
kī
ku
kū
ke
kē
kai
ko
kō
kau
kr̥
kr̥̄
kl̥
kl̥̄
kaṁ
kaḥ
k
क
का
कॅ
कॉ
कि
की
कु
कू
कॆ
के
कै
कॊ
को
कौ
कृ
कॄ
कॢ
कॣ
कं
कः
क्
A vowel combines with a consonant in their diacritic form. For example, the vowel आ (ā) combines with the consonant क् (k) to form the syllabic letter का (kā), with halant (cancel sign) removed and added vowel sign which is indicated by diacritics. The vowel अ (a) combines with the consonant क् (k) to form क (ka) with halant removed. But the diacritic series of क, ख, ग, घ (ka, kha, ga, gha, respectively) is without any added vowel sign, as the vowel अ (a) is inherent.
The combinations of all consonants and vowels, each in alphabetical order, are laid out in the bārākhaḍī (बाराखडी) or bārahkhaṛī (बारहखड़ी) table. In the following barakhadi table, the transliteration of each combination will appear on mouseover:
Barakhadi table
a
ā
i
ī
u
ū
e
ai
o
au
aṁ
aḥ
अ
आ
इ
ई
उ
ऊ
ए
ऐ
ओ
औ
अं
अः
k-
क
का
कि
की
कु
कू
के
कै
को
कौ
कं
कः
kh-
ख
खा
खि
खी
खु
खू
खे
खै
खो
खौ
खं
खः
g-
ग
गा
गि
गी
गु
गू
गे
गै
गो
गौ
गं
गः
gh-
घ
घा
घि
घी
घु
घू
घे
घै
घो
घौ
घं
घः
ṅ-
ङ
ङा
ङि
ङी
ङु
ङू
ङे
ङै
ङो
ङौ
ङं
ङः
c-
च
चा
चि
ची
चु
चू
चे
चै
चो
चौ
चं
चः
ch-
छ
छा
छि
छी
छु
छू
छे
छै
छो
छौ
छं
छः
j-
ज
जा
जि
जी
जु
जू
जे
जै
जो
जौ
जं
जः
jh-
झ
झा
झि
झी
झु
झू
झे
झै
झो
झौ
झं
झः
ñ-
ञ
ञा
ञि
ञी
ञु
ञू
ञे
ञै
ञो
ञौ
ञं
ञः
ṭ-
ट
टा
टि
टी
टु
टू
टे
टै
टो
टौ
टं
टः
ṭh-
ठ
ठा
ठि
ठी
ठु
ठू
ठे
ठै
ठो
ठौ
ठं
ठः
ḍ-
ड
डा
डि
डी
डु
डू
डे
डै
डो
डौ
डं
डः
ḍh-
ढ
ढा
ढि
ढी
ढु
ढू
ढे
ढै
ढो
ढौ
ढं
ढः
ṇ-
ण
णा
णि
णी
णु
णू
णे
णै
णो
णौ
णं
णः
t-
त
ता
ति
ती
तु
तू
ते
तै
तो
तौ
तं
तः
th-
थ
था
थि
थी
थु
थू
थे
थै
थो
थौ
थं
थः
d-
द
दा
दि
दी
दु
दू
दे
दै
दो
दौ
दं
दः
dh-
ध
धा
धि
धी
धु
धू
धे
धै
धो
धौ
धं
धः
n-
न
ना
नि
नी
नु
नू
ने
नै
नो
नौ
नं
नः
p-
प
पा
पि
पी
पु
पू
पे
पै
पो
पौ
पं
पः
ph-
फ
फा
फि
फी
फु
फू
फे
फै
फो
फौ
फं
फः
b-
ब
बा
बि
बी
बु
बू
बे
बै
बो
बौ
बं
बः
bh-
भ
भा
भि
भी
भु
भू
भे
भै
भो
भौ
भं
भः
m-
म
मा
मि
मी
मु
मू
मे
मै
मो
मौ
मं
मः
y-
य
या
यि
यी
यु
यू
ये
यै
यो
यौ
यं
यः
r-
र
रा
रि
री
रु
रू
रे
रै
रो
रौ
रं
रः
l-
ल
ला
लि
ली
लु
लू
ले
लै
लो
लौ
लं
लः
v-
व
वा
वि
वी
वु
वू
वे
वै
वो
वौ
वं
वः
ś-
श
शा
शि
शी
शु
शू
शे
शै
शो
शौ
शं
शः
ṣ-
ष
षा
षि
षी
षु
षू
षे
षै
षो
षौ
षं
षः
s-
स
सा
सि
सी
सु
सू
से
सै
सो
सौ
सं
सः
h-
ह
हा
हि
ही
हु
हू
हे
है
हो
हौ
हं
हः
Old forms
The following letter variants are also in use, particularly in older texts and in specific regions:[58]
As mentioned, successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join as a
ligature. When Devanāgarī is used for writing languages other than Sanskrit, conjuncts are used mostly with Sanskrit words and loan words. Native words typically use the basic consonant and native speakers know to suppress the vowel when it is conventional to do so. For example, the native Hindi word karnā is written करना (ka-ra-nā).[59] The government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules, with special exceptions within. While standardised for the most part, there are certain variations in clustering, of which the Unicode
used on this page is just one scheme. The following are a number of rules:
24 out of the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke (खkha, घgha, णṇa etc.). As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster (when letters are to be written as half pronounced), they lose that stroke. e.g. त् + व = त्वtva, ण् + ढ = ण्ढṇḍha, स् + थ = स्थstha. In Unicode, as in Hindi, these consonants without their vertical stems are called "half forms".[60]शśa appears as a different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment preceding वva, नna, चca, लla, and रra, causing these second members to be shifted down and reduced in size. Thus श्वśva, श्नśna, श्चśca, श्लśla, श्रśra, and शृśṛi.
रra as a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or its ā- diacritic. e.g. र्वrva, र्वाrvā, र्स्पrspa, र्स्पाrspā. As a final member with टṭa, ठṭha, डḍa, ढḍha, ड़ṛa, छcha, it is two lines together below the character pointed downwards. Thus ट्रṭra, ठ्रṭhra, ड्रḍra, ढ्रḍhra, ड़्रṛra, छ्रchra. Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke extending leftwards and down. e.g. क्र ग्र भ्र ब्र. तta is shifted up to make the conjunct त्रtra.
As first members, remaining characters lacking vertical strokes such as दda and हha may have their second member, reduced in size and lacking its horizontal stroke, placed underneath. कka, छcha, and फpha shorten their right hooks and join them directly to the following member.
The conjuncts for kṣa and jña are not clearly derived from the letters making up their components. The conjunct for kṣa is क्ष (क् + ष) and for jña it is ज्ञ (ज् + ञ).
, anudātta is written with a bar below the line (◌॒), svarita with a stroke above the line (◌॑) while udātta is unmarked.
Punctuation
The end of a sentence or half-verse may be marked with the "।" symbol (called a daṇḍa, meaning "bar", or called a pūrṇa virām, meaning "full stop/pause"). The end of a full verse may be marked with a double-daṇḍa, a "॥" symbol. A comma (called an alpa virām, meaning "short stop/pause") is used to denote a natural pause in speech.[61][62] Punctuation marks of Western origin, such as the colon, semicolon, exclamation mark, dash, and question mark have been in use in Devanāgarī script since at least the 1900s,[citation needed] matching their use in European languages.[63]
A variety of Unicode fonts are in use for Devanāgarī. These include Akshar,[64] Annapurna,[65]Arial,[66] CDAC-Gist Surekh,[67] CDAC-Gist Yogesh,[68] Chandas,[69] Gargi,[70] Gurumaa,[71] Jaipur,[72] Jana,[73] Kalimati,[74] Kanjirowa,[75] Lohit Devanagari, Mangal,[76] Kokila,[77] ,Preeti,[78] Raghu,[79] Sanskrit2003,[80] Santipur OT,[81] Siddhanta, and Thyaka.[82]
The form of Devanāgarī fonts vary with function. According to Harvard College for Sanskrit studies:[81]
Uttara [companion to Chandas] is the best in terms of ligatures but, because it is designed for Vedic as well, requires so much vertical space that it is not well suited for the "user interface font" (though an excellent choice for the "original field" font). Santipur OT is a beautiful font reflecting a very early [medieval era] typesetting style for Devanagari. Sanskrit 2003[83] is a good all-around font and has more ligatures than most fonts, though students will probably find the spacing of the CDAC-Gist Surekh[67] font makes for quicker comprehension and reading.
The Google Fonts project has a number of Unicode fonts for Devanāgarī in a variety of typefaces in serif, sans-serif, display and handwriting categories.
A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brāhmic graphemes to the Latin script. The Devanāgarī-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for Sanskrit,
International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is the academic standard for the romanisation of Sanskrit. IAST is the de facto standard used in printed publications, like books, magazines, and electronic texts with Unicode fonts. It is based on a standard established by the Congress of Orientalists at Athens in 1912. The ISO 15919 standard of 2001 codified the transliteration convention to include an expanded standard for sister scripts of Devanāgarī.[88]
that can be difficult to read in the middle of words.
ITRANS
Indic scripts. The user inputs in Roman letters and the ITRANS pre-processor translates the Roman letters into Devanāgarī (or other Indic languages). The latest version of ITRANS is version 5.30 released in July 2001. It is similar to Velthuis system and was created by Avinash Chopde to help print various Indic scripts with personal computers.[89]
The disadvantage of the above ASCII schemes is case-sensitivity, implying that transliterated names may not be capitalised. This difficulty is avoided with the system developed in 1996 by Frans Velthuis for TeX, loosely based on IAST, in which case is irrelevant.
ALA-LC Romanisation
ALA-LC[90] romanisation is a transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association, and widely used in North American libraries. Transliteration tables are based on languages, so there is a table for Hindi,[91] one for Sanskrit and Prakrit,[92] etc.
WX is a Roman transliteration scheme for Indian languages, widely used among the natural language processing community in India. It originated at IIT Kanpur for computational processing of Indian languages. The salient features of this transliteration scheme are as follows.
Every consonant and every vowel has a single mapping into Roman. Hence it is a prefix code, advantageous from computation point of view.
Lower-case letters are used for unaspirated consonants and short vowels, while capital letters are used for aspirated consonants and long vowels. While the retroflex stops are mapped to 't, T, d, D, N', the dentals are mapped to 'w, W, x, X, n'. Hence the name 'WX', a reminder of this idiosyncratic mapping.
Encodings
ISCII
ISCII is an 8-bit encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plain ASCII
, the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific.
It has been designed for representing not only Devanāgarī but also various other
Indic scripts
as well as a Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts.
ISCII has largely been superseded by Unicode, which has, however, attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks.
The Unicode Standard defines four blocks for Devanāgarī: Devanagari (U+0900–U+097F), Devanagari Extended (U+A8E0–U+A8FF), Devanagari Extended-A (U+11B00–11B5F), and Vedic Extensions (U+1CD0–U+1CFF).
keyboard layout for Devanāgarī as standardized by the Government of India. It is inbuilt in all modern major operating systems. Microsoft Windows
supports the InScript layout, which can be used to input unicode Devanāgarī characters. InScript is also available in some touchscreen mobile phones.
Typewriter
This layout was used on manual typewriters when computers were not available or were uncommon. For backward compatibility some typing tools like Indic IME still provide this layout.
Phonetic
Such tools work on phonetic transliteration. The user writes in the Latin alphabet and the
IME automatically converts it into Devanāgarī. Some popular phonetic typing tools are Akruti, Baraha IME and Google IME
.
The
Mac OS X operating system includes two different keyboard layouts
for Devanāgarī: one resembles the INSCRIPT/KDE Linux, while the other is a phonetic layout called "Devanāgarī QWERTY".
Any one of the Unicode fonts input systems is fine for the Indic language Wikipedia and other wikiprojects, including Hindi, Bhojpuri, Marathi, and Nepali Wikipedia. While some people use
Google phonetic transliteration or the input facility Universal Language Selector provided on Wikipedia. On Indic language wikiprojects, the phonetic facility provided initially was java-based, and was later supported by Narayam extension for phonetic input facility. Currently Indic language Wiki projects are supported by Universal Language Selector (ULS), that offers both phonetic keyboard (Aksharantaran, Marathi: अक्षरांतरण, Hindi: लिप्यंतरण, बोलनागरी) and InScript keyboard
(Marathi: मराठी लिपी).
The
keyboard layouts for Devanāgarī, including Harvard-Kyoto, WX notation
, Bolanagari and phonetic. The 'remington' typing method in Ubuntu IBUS is similar to the Krutidev typing method, popular in Rajasthan. The 'itrans' method is useful for those who know English (and the English keyboard) well but are not familiar with typing in Devanāgarī.
Shiksha – the Vedic study of sound, focusing on the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet
References
Citations
^
Chalukya
or Kistna inscription of 945, and a Kawi inscription of 919 ... the Kutila inscription is of great importance in Indian epigraphy, not only from its precise date, but from its offering a definite early form of the standard Indian alphabet, the Devanagari ...
. Retrieved 1 July 2023. Each Brāhmī-derived script has a characteristic stylistic format or ductus, which tends to exaggerate their apparent differences and mask their underlying similarities. For example, Nagari has a strong preference for symmetrical shapes, especially squared outlines and right angles...
^ ab"Rudradaman's inscription from 1st through 4th century CE found in Gujarat, India". Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Stanford University Archives. pp. 30–45, particularly Devanāgarī inscription on Jayadaman's coins (pp. 33–34).
from the original on 7 March 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2015. (p. 110) "... an early branch of this, as of the fourth century CE, was the Gupta script, Brahmi's first main daughter. ... The Gupta alphabet became the ancestor of most Indic scripts (usually through later Devanagari). ... Beginning around AD 600, Gupta inspired the important Nagari, Sarada, Tibetan and Pāḷi scripts. Nagari, of India's northwest, first appeared around AD 633. Once fully developed in the eleventh century, Nagari had become Devanagari, or "heavenly Nagari", since it was now the main vehicle, out of several, for Sanskrit literature."
. Nagari script and Sanskrit language in the inscription at Blangjong suggests that Indian culture was already influencing Bali (Indonesia) by the 10th century CE.
ISBN 978-0195305326.; Original manuscript, dates in Saka Samvat, and uncertainties associated with it: Kielhorn, F., ed. (1880), Mahabhasya of Patanjali
^Teselkin, Avenir S. (1972). Old Javanese (Kawi). Cornell University Press. pp. 9–14. Archived from the original on 26 January 2020. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
. Only in Hindi 10 Phonemes व /v/ क़ /q/ ञ /ɲ/ य /j/ ष /ʂ/ ख़ /x/ ग़ /ɣ/ ज़ /z/ झ़ /ʒ/ फ़ /f/
^Pandit, S.P. (1872). "Salotgi Inscription". The Indian Antiquary: A Journal of Oriental Research. pp. 205–211. The inscription of which a translation is given below, is engraved on a stone pillar about 4 feet 10 inches in height, 1 foot 2 inches thick, and 1 foot 9 inches broad. It is cut in Devanagari characters on three of its four sides, and ...
^Bahri, Harder (2004). Hindi-Angrezi Shabdkosh. p. xiii.
^Sharma, Daya Nand (1972). Transliteration into Roman and Devanagari of the languages of the Indian group. Survey of India, 1972. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2015. ... With the passage of time there has emerged a practically uniform system of transliteration of Devanagari and allied alphabets. Nevertheless, no single system of Romanisation has yet developed ...
from the original on 24 April 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015, ... ISO 15919 ... There is no evidence of the use of the system either in India or in international cartographic products ... The Hunterian system is the actually used national system of romanisation in India ...
^United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (1955), United Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Far East, Volume 2, United Nations, 1955, archived from the original on 27 April 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015, ... In India the Hunterian system is used, whereby every sound in the local language is uniformly represented by a certain letter in the Roman alphabet ...
^National Library (India) (1960), Indian scientific & technical publications, exhibition 1960: a bibliography, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Government of India, 1960, archived from the original on 27 April 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015, ... The Hunterian system of transliteration, which has international acceptance, has been used ...
Lambert, Hester Marjorie (1953), Introduction to the Devanagari Script: For Students of Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali, London: Geoffrey Cumberlege (Oxford University Press).
Salomon, Richard (2003), "Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, pp. 67–103,
Census and catalogues of manuscripts in Devanāgarī
Thousands of manuscripts of ancient and medieval era Sanskrit texts in Devanāgarī have been discovered since the 19th century. Major catalogues and census include:
A preliminary list of the Sanskrit and Prakrit manuscripts, Vedas, Sastras, Sutras, Schools of Hindu Philosophies, Arts, Design, Music and other fields, Friedrich Otto Schrader (Compiler), (Devanagiri manuscripts are identified by Character code De.)
Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, Part 4: Manuscripts of Hindu schools of Philosophy and Tantra, Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)
Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, Part 5: Manuscripts of Medicine, Astronomy and Mathematics, Architecture and Technical Science Literature, Julius Eggeling (Compiler), Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)
Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, p. 30, at Google Books, Rudradaman's inscription in Sanskrit Nāgarī script from 1st through 4th century CE (coins and epigraphy), found in Gujarat, India, pages 30–45