Iberians
The Iberians (
The term Iberian, as used by the ancient authors, had two distinct meanings. One, more general, referred to
.Starting in the 5th century BC, Iberian soldiers were frequently deployed in battles in Italy, Greece and especially Sicily due to their military qualities.
History
The Iberian culture developed from the 6th century BC, and perhaps as early as the fifth to the third millennium BC in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian peninsula.
Settlements
In the centuries preceding Carthaginian and Roman conquest, Iberian settlements grew in
The settlement of Castellet de Banyoles in Tivissa was one of the most important ancient Iberian settlements in the north eastern part of the Iberian peninsula that was discovered in 1912. Also, the 'Treasure of Tivissa', a unique collection of silver Iberian votive offerings was found here in 1927.[7]
Lucentum was another ancient Iberian settlement, as well as Castelldefels Castle.
Sagunto is the location of an ancient Iberian and later Roman city of Saguntum, where a big fortress was built in the 5th century BC.
The Iberians traded extensively with other Mediterranean cultures. Iberian
The Iberians also had contacts with the
According to Arrian, the Iberians sent emissaries to Alexander the Great in 324 BC, along with other embassies of Carthaginians, Italics and Gauls, to request his friendship.[9]
Second Punic War and Roman conquest
After the
Rome sent
After the Carthaginian defeat, the Iberian territories were divided into two major provinces,
Iberian culture
Iberian society was divided into different classes, including kings or chieftains (Latin: "regulus"), nobles, priests, artisans and slaves. Iberian aristocracy, often called a "senate" by the ancient sources, met in a council of nobles. Kings or chieftains would maintain their forces through a system of obligation or vassalage that the Romans termed "fides".[12]
The Iberians adopted wine and olives from the Greeks. Horse breeding was particularly important to the Iberians and their nobility. Mining was also very important for their economy, especially the silver mines near Gader and Cartago Nova, the iron mines in the Ebro valley, as well as the exploitation of tin and copper deposits. They produced fine metalwork and high quality iron weapons such as the falcata.
Art and religion
The Iberians produced sculpture in stone and bronze, most of which was much influenced by the Greeks and Phoenicians, and other cultures such as Assyrian, Hittite and Egyptian influences. The styles of Iberian sculpture are divided geographically into Levantine, Central, Southern, and Western groups, of which the Levantine group displays the most Greek influence. Iberian pottery and painting was also distinct and widespread throughout the region. A distinct feature of the culture, the pottery was primarily decorated with geometric forms in red but in some areas (from Murcia to the south of Catalonia) it also included figurative images.[6]
The Iberian
Iberians performed their rites in the open and also maintained sanctuaries in holy places like groves, springs and caves.[14] Archaeological evidence suggests the existence of a priestly class and Silius Italicus mentions priests in the region of Tartessos at a temple of Melqart. Evidence from pottery reveals some information about Iberian myth and ritual. Common themes are a celebratory ritual dance described by Strabo [c.f. 3.3.7.] and seen in a relief from Fuerte del Rey known as the "Bastetania dance" and the confrontation between the deceased and a wolf figure.[15] Ritual sacrifice of animals was also common.
In Iberian eschatology, "death was seen as the starting point for a journey symbolised by a crossing of the sea, the land or even the sky. Supernatural and mythical beings, such as the Sphinx or the wolf, and sometimes Divinity itself, accompanied and guided the deceased on this journey".[6] The Iberians incinerated their dead and placed their ashes in ceremonial urns, the remains were then placed in stone tombs.
Warfare
Iberian soldiers were widely employed by Carthage and Rome as mercenaries and auxiliary troops. A large portion of Carthaginian forces during the
Ancient sources mention two major types of Iberian infantry, scutati and caetrati. Scutati were heavily armored and carried large Italic style
Iberian tribes
Iberians dwelt along eastern and southern coastal regions of the
The Iberian tribes or tribal confederacies were:
- Andosini - in the mountains of East Segre river basin, area of modern Andorra.
- Ausa (today's Vic) was their main centre.
- Baza) was their main centre.
- .
- .
- Tarragona province), in the mediterranean coastal region. Kese (Tarraco in Roman times, that would become the Hispania Tarraconensiscapital), was their main centre.
- Llivia) was their main centre. North of the Ilergetes and the Bergistani.
- Albacete provinces. A tribal confederation. East of the Bastetani. Centres included Saetabi (modern Xàtiva) and la Bastida de les Alcusses.
- Deitani - in and around Elx/Elche)
- Deitani - in and around
- Sagunt) was also in their territory. North of the Contestani and the Bastetani and south of the Ilercavones.
- Ligurianor a Ligurian-Iberian tribe.
- Millars river along the mediterranean coast and to the inland towards the Sierra de Gúdar, in Ilercavonia. One of the biggest iberian tribes or tribal confederations. Hibera (Roman time Dertusa or Dertosa, modern time Tortosa) was their main centre. North of the Edetani, south of the Ilergetes, east of the Sedetani and west of the Cessetani.
- Lérida/Lleida) was their main centre.
- Girona Province. Indika/Indiga or Undika was their main centre (identified with the ruins of Ullastret). A confederation was formed by four tribes.
- Llobregat river basin and surrounding hills. Northwest of the Laietani.
- in modern times) was their main centre.
- Celtic one, or a mixed Celtic and Iberian tribe or tribal confederacy (and hence related to the Celtiberians). The Mantesani/Mentesani/Mantasani of today's La Mancha and the Germani (of Oretania) in eastern Marianus Mons (Sierra Morena) and west Jabalón river valley, sometimes are included in the Oretani but it is not certain if they were Oretani tribes.
- Iberus (Ebro). Salduie (Roman time Salduba and Caesaraugusta and modern time Zaragoza) was in their territory. May have been more closely related to the Edetani. West of the Ilercavones.
- ) was their main centre.
- Vescetani/Oscenses - In today's northern Gállego river, in Sobrarbe, in and around Bolskan, later Osca (Huesca), and high Cinca River valley, Spain. They could also be related to the Vascones and therefore be related to the Aquitani speaking the Aquitanian language.
- Unknown named tribe or tribes in the Gymnesian islands), may have been Iberians.
Iberian language
The Iberian language, like the rest of the paleohispanic languages, became extinct by the 1st to 2nd centuries AD, after being gradually replaced by Latin. The Iberian language remains an unclassified non-Indo European language. A 1978 study claimed many similarities between Iberian and the Messapic language.[16] Iberian languages also share some elements with the Basque language.[17] Links have also been found with the Etruscan language and Minoan Linear A.[18]
There are different theories about the origin of the Iberian language. According to the Catalan theory, the Iberian language originated in northern Catalonia, from where it expanded north and south.[19]
Iberian scripts
The Iberians use three different scripts to represent the Iberian language.
- Northeastern Iberian script
- Dual variant (4th century BC and 3rd century BC)
- Non-dual variant (2nd century BC and 1st century BC)
- Southeastern Iberian script
- Greco-Iberian alphabet
See also
- Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
- Iberian language
- Iberian scripts
- Ancient Iberian coinage
References
- ^ An English-language survey is Richard J. Harrison, Spain at the Dawn of History: Iberians, Phoenicians and Greeks (Thames & Hudson), 1988.
- ^ "Iberians – MSN Encarta". Archived from the original on 2009-10-30.
- ^ Iberians – Encyclopedia.com
- ^ "Spain: Historical Setting – Library of Congress Country Study – Iberia". Archived from the original on 2020-04-06. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
- ^ J. S. Richardson, Hispaniae; Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism, 218-82 BC, page 16.
- ^ a b c Rueda, Carmen; Sánchez, Alberto; Amate, Pilar (2018-11-30). "The history of the Iberians". blog.europeana.eu. Europeana – CC BY-SA. Retrieved 2018-11-30.
- ^ Castellet de Banyoles (Tivissa) Archived 2016-03-08 at the Wayback Machine Museu d'Arqueologia de Catalunya
- ^ "Sicilian Peoples: The Sicanians". Best of Sicily. 7 October 2007.
- The Anabasis of Alexander, VII.XV. "As he was marching back to Babylon, he was met by embassies from the Libyans, who congratulated him and crowned him as conqueror of the kingdom of Asia. From Italy also came Bruttians, Lucanians, and Tyrrhenians as envoys, for the same purpose. The Carthaginians are said to have sent an embassy to him at this time; and it is also asserted that envoys came to request his friendship from the Ethiopians, the Scythians of Europe, the Gauls, and Iberians — nations whose names were heard and their accoutrements seen then for the first time by Greeks and Macedonians. They are also said to have entrusted to Alexander the duty of settling their disputes with each other. Then indeed it was especially evident both to himself and to those about him that he was lord of all the land and sea."
- ^ Dodge, Theodore Ayrault, Hannibal: A History of the Art of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans Down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 B.C, p. 143[permanent dead link]
- ^ Hoyos, D. Hannibal's Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247-183 BC, p.89-91, 2003
- ^ a b c Rafael Treviño Martinez, Rome's Enemies (4) : Spanish Armies 218-19 BC (Men at Arms Series, 180)
- ^ a b Lisbeth Bredholt Christensen, et al. The Handbook of Religions in Ancient Europe
- ^ La religiosidad entre los iberos, http://www.artehistoria.com/v2/contextos/5758.htm Archived 2017-09-02 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Lisbeth Bredholt Christensen, et al. The Handbook of Religions in Ancient Europe, page
- S2CID 162251382.
- ^ José Ignacio Hualde, Joseba A. Lakarra, Towards a History of the Basque Language, page 55.
- ^ Antonio Arnaiz-Villena et al., Prehistoric Iberia: Genetics, Anthropology, and Linguistics, 171.
- ^ Velaza, Javier (2006) Lengua vs. cultura material: el (viejo) problema de la lengua indígena de Cataluña, Actes de la III Reunió Internacional d'Arqueologia de Calafell (Calafell, 25 to 27 November 2004), Arqueo Mediterrània 9, pp. 273-280
Further reading
- Beltrán, Miguel (1996): Los iberos en Aragón, Zaragoza.
- Ruiz, Arturo; Molinos, Manuel (1993): Los iberos, Barcelona.
- Sanmartí, Joan; Santacana, Joan (2005): Els ibers del nord, Barcelona.
- Sanmartí, Joan (2005): «La conformación del mundo ibérico septentrional», Palaeohispanica 5, pp. 333–358.
External links
- Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)
- Iberian Epigraphy Page, by J.R. Ramos