Noam Chomsky
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Avram Noam Chomsky
Born to Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia, Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania. During his postgraduate work in the Harvard Society of Fellows, Chomsky developed the theory of transformational grammar for which he earned his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark work Syntactic Structures, which played a major role in remodeling the study of language. From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study. He created or co-created the universal grammar theory, the generative grammar theory, the Chomsky hierarchy, and the minimalist program. Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of linguistic behaviorism, and was particularly critical of the work of B. F. Skinner.
An outspoken
Chomsky is widely recognized as having helped to spark the
Life
Childhood: 1928–1945
Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, in the
Noam's only sibling, David Eli Chomsky (1934–2021), was born five years later, and worked as a cardiologist in Philadelphia.
Chomsky attended the independent,
Chomsky has described his parents as "normal
University: 1945–1955
In 1945, at the age of 16, Chomsky began a general program of study at the University of Pennsylvania, where he explored philosophy, logic, and languages and developed a primary interest in learning Arabic.[36] Living at home, he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew.[37] Frustrated with his experiences at the university, he considered dropping out and moving to a kibbutz in Mandatory Palestine,[38] but his intellectual curiosity was reawakened through conversations with the linguist Zellig Harris, whom he first met in a political circle in 1947. Harris introduced Chomsky to the field of theoretical linguistics and convinced him to major in the subject.[39] Chomsky's BA honors thesis, "Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew", applied Harris's methods to the language.[40] Chomsky revised this thesis for his MA, which he received from the University of Pennsylvania in 1951; it was subsequently published as a book.[41] He also developed his interest in philosophy while at university, in particular under the tutelage of Nelson Goodman.[42]
From 1951 to 1955, Chomsky was a member of the
In 1947, Chomsky began a romantic relationship with
Early career: 1955–1966
Chomsky befriended two linguists at the
Chomsky's provocative critique of
Chomsky continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade, including in
Anti-war activism and dissent: 1967–1975
[I]t does not require very far-reaching, specialized knowledge to perceive that the United States was invading South Vietnam. And, in fact, to take apart the system of illusions and deception which functions to prevent understanding of contemporary reality [is] not a task that requires extraordinary skill or understanding. It requires the kind of normal skepticism and willingness to apply one's analytical skills that almost all people have and that they can exercise.
—Chomsky on the Vietnam War[76]
Chomsky joined
Chomsky also became involved in left-wing activism. Chomsky refused to pay half his taxes, publicly supported students who
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Chomsky participating in the anti-Vietnam War March on the Pentagon, October 21, 1967 | |
Chomsky with other public figures | |
The protesters passing the Lincoln Memorial en route to the Pentagon |
Chomsky's anti-war activism led to his arrest on multiple occasions and he was on President
Chomsky's work in linguistics continued to gain international recognition as he
Edward S. Herman and the Faurisson affair: 1976–1980
In the late 1970s and 1980s, Chomsky's linguistic publications expanded and clarified his earlier work, addressing his critics and updating his grammatical theory.
While mainstream publishing options proved elusive, Chomsky found support from
Chomsky had long publicly criticized Nazism, and totalitarianism more generally, but his commitment to freedom of speech led him to defend the right of French historian Robert Faurisson to advocate a position widely characterized as Holocaust denial. Without Chomsky's knowledge, his plea for Faurisson's freedom of speech was published as the preface to the latter's 1980 book Mémoire en défense contre ceux qui m'accusent de falsifier l'histoire.[111] Chomsky was widely condemned for defending Faurisson,[112] and France's mainstream press accused Chomsky of being a Holocaust denier himself, refusing to publish his rebuttals to their accusations.[113] Critiquing Chomsky's position, sociologist Werner Cohn later published an analysis of the affair titled Partners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers.[114] The Faurisson affair had a lasting, damaging effect on Chomsky's career,[115] especially in France.[116]
Critique of propaganda and international affairs
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Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media, a 1992 documentary exploring Chomsky's work of the same name and its impact |
In 1985, during the
Chomsky and Herman's
In the 1990s, Chomsky embraced political activism to a greater degree than before.
Chomsky was widely interviewed after the
Retirement
Chomsky retired from MIT in 2002,
Chomsky supported the 2011 Occupy movement, speaking at encampments and publishing on the movement, which he called a reaction to a 30-year class war.[138] The 2015 documentary Requiem for the American Dream summarizes his views on capitalism and economic inequality through a "75-minute teach-in".[139]
Chomsky taught a short-term politics course at the University of Arizona in 2017[140] and was later hired as a part-time professor in the linguistics department there, his duties including teaching and public seminars.[141] His salary is covered by philanthropic donations.[142]
Linguistic theory
What started as purely linguistic research ... has led, through involvement in political causes and an identification with an older philosophic tradition, to no less than an attempt to formulate an overall theory of man. The roots of this are manifest in the linguistic theory ... The discovery of cognitive structures common to the human race but only to humans (species specific), leads quite easily to thinking of unalienable human attributes.
—Edward Marcotte on the significance of Chomsky's linguistic theory[143]
The basis of Chomsky's linguistic theory lies in
Universal grammar
Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that syntactic knowledge is at least partially inborn, implying that children need only learn certain language-specific features of their
Transformational-generative grammar
Chomsky is commonly credited with inventing transformational-generative grammar, but his original contribution was considered modest when he first published his theory. In his 1955 dissertation and his 1957 textbook Syntactic Structures, he presented recent developments in the analysis formulated by Zellig Harris, who was Chomsky's PhD supervisor, and by
Transformational grammar was the dominant research paradigm through the mid-1970s. The derivative[161] government and binding theory replaced it and remained influential through the early 1990s, [161] when linguists turned to a "minimalist" approach to grammar. This research focused on the principles and parameters framework, which explained children's ability to learn any language by filling open parameters (a set of universal grammar principles) that adapt as the child encounters linguistic data.[167] The minimalist program, initiated by Chomsky,[168] asks which minimal principles and parameters theory fits most elegantly, naturally, and simply.[167] In an attempt to simplify language into a system that relates meaning and sound using the minimum possible faculties, Chomsky dispenses with concepts such as "deep structure" and "surface structure" and instead emphasizes the plasticity of the brain's neural circuits, with which come an infinite number of concepts, or "logical forms".[147] When exposed to linguistic data, a hearer-speaker's brain proceeds to associate sound and meaning, and the rules of grammar we observe are in fact only the consequences, or side effects, of the way language works. Thus, while much of Chomsky's prior research focused on the rules of language, he now focuses on the mechanisms the brain uses to generate these rules and regulate speech.[147][169]
Political views
The second major area to which Chomsky has contributed—and surely the best known in terms of the number of people in his audience and the ease of understanding what he writes and says—is his work on sociopolitical analysis; political, social, and economic history; and critical assessment of current political circumstance. In Chomsky's view, although those in power might—and do—try to obscure their intentions and to defend their actions in ways that make them acceptable to citizens, it is easy for anyone who is willing to be critical and consider the facts to discern what they are up to.
—James McGilvray, 2014[170]
Chomsky is a prominent political dissident.
In Chomsky's view, the truth about political realities is systematically distorted or suppressed by an elite
Although he has participated in direct action demonstrations—joining protests, being arrested, organizing groups—Chomsky's primary political outlet is education, i.e., free public lessons.[181] He is a longtime member of the Industrial Workers of the World international union,[182] as was his father.[183]
United States foreign policy
Chomsky has been a prominent critic of American imperialism[184] but is not a pacifist, believing World War II was justified as America's last defensive war.[185] He believes that U.S. foreign policy's basic principle is the establishment of "open societies" that are economically and politically controlled by the U.S. and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper.[186] He argues that the U.S. seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U.S. interests and to ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power.[179] When discussing current events, he emphasizes their place within a wider historical perspective.[187] He believes that official, sanctioned historical accounts of U.S. and British extraterritorial operations have consistently whitewashed these nations' actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or, in older instances, spreading Christianity; by criticizing these accounts, he seeks to correct them.[188] Prominent examples he regularly cites are the actions of the British Empire in India and Africa and U.S. actions in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East.[188]
Chomsky's political work has centered heavily on criticizing the actions of the United States.[187] He has said he focuses on the U.S. because the country has militarily and economically dominated the world during his lifetime and because its liberal democratic electoral system allows the citizenry to influence government policy.[189] His hope is that, by spreading awareness of the impact U.S. foreign policies have on the populations affected by them, he can sway the populations of the U.S. and other countries into opposing the policies.[188] He urges people to criticize their governments' motivations, decisions, and actions, to accept responsibility for their own thoughts and actions, and to apply the same standards to others as to themselves.[190]
Chomsky has been critical of U.S. involvement in the
While calling the
Capitalism and socialism
In his youth, Chomsky developed a dislike of
Chomsky highlights that, since the 1970s,
Noting the entrenchment of such an economic system, Chomsky believes that change is possible through the organized cooperation of large numbers of people who understand the problem and know how they want to reorganize the economy more equitably.[202] Acknowledging that corporate domination of media and government stifles any significant change to this system, he sees reason for optimism in historical examples such as the social rejection of slavery as immoral, the advances in women's rights, and the forcing of government to justify invasions.[200] He views violent revolution to overthrow a government as a last resort to be avoided if possible, citing the example of historical revolutions where the population's welfare has worsened as a result of upheaval.[202]
Chomsky sees libertarian socialist and anarcho-syndicalist ideas as the descendants of the
Israeli–Palestinian conflict
A left-anarchist who believes in a radically different way of ordering society and of states and is largely critical of existing institutions, and an anti-war American Jewish socialist, Chomsky has nuanced and complex views on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
Chomsky has said that characterizing
Chomsky was denied entry to the
In his 1983 book The Fateful Triangle, Chomsky criticized the
Mass media and propaganda
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Chomsky on propaganda and the manufacturing of consent, June 1, 2003 |
Chomsky's political writings have largely focused on ideology,
Chomsky considers most
Reactions of critics and counter-criticism: 1980s–present
In the 2004 book
For 40 years Noam Chomsky has turned out book after book, pamphlet after pamphlet and speech after speech with one message, and one message alone: America is the Great Satan; it is the fount of evil in the world. In Chomsky's demented universe, America is responsible not only for its own bad deeds, but for the bad deeds of others, including those of the terrorists who struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. In this attitude he is the medium for all those who now search the ruins of Manhattan not for the victims and the American dead, but for the "root causes" of the catastrophe that befell them.
For the conservative public policy think tank the Hoover Institution, Peter Schweizer wrote in January 2006, "Chomsky favors the estate tax and massive income redistribution—just not the redistribution of his income." Schweizer criticized Chomsky for setting up an estate plan and protecting his own intellectual property as it relates to his published works, as well as the high speaking fees that Chomsky received on a regular basis, around $9,000–$12,000 per talk at that time.[239][240]
Chomsky has been accused of treating socialist or communist regimes with credulity and examining capitalist regimes with greater scrutiny or criticism:[241]
Chomsky's analysis of U.S. actions plunged deep into dark U.S. machinations, but when traveling among the Communists he rested content with appearances. The countryside outside Hanoi, he reported in The New York Review of Books, displayed "a high degree of democratic participation at the village and regional levels." But how could he tell? Chomsky did not speak Vietnamese, and so he depended on government translators, tour guides, and handlers for information. In [Communist] Vietnamese hands, the clear-eyed skepticism turned into willing credulousness.[241]
According to Nikolas Kozloff, writing for Al Jazeera in September 2012, Chomsky "has drawn the world's attention to the various misdeeds of the US and its proxies around the world, and for that he deserves credit. Yet, in seeking to avoid controversy at all costs Chomsky has turned into something of an ideologue. Scour the Chomsky web site and you won't find significant discussion of Belarus or Latin America's flirtation with outside authoritarian leaders, for that matter."[242]
Political activist George Monbiot has argued that "Part of the problem is that a kind of cult has developed around Noam Chomsky and John Pilger, which cannot believe they could ever be wrong, and produces ever more elaborate conspiracy theories to justify their mistakes."[243]
Anarchist and primitivist John Zerzan has accused Chomsky of not being a real anarchist, saying that he is instead "a liberal-leftist politically, and downright reactionary in his academic specialty, linguistic theory. Chomsky is also, by all accounts, a generous, sincere, tireless activist—which does not, unfortunately, ensure his thinking has liberatory value."[244]
Defenders of Chomsky have countered that he has been censored or left out of public debate. Claims of this nature date to the Reagan era. Writing for The Washington Post in February 1988, Saul Landau wrote, "It is unhealthy that Chomsky's insights are excluded from the policy debate. His relentless prosecutorial prose, with a hint of Talmudic whine and the rationalist anarchism of Tom Paine, may reflect a justified frustration."[245]
Philosophy
Chomsky has also been active in a number of philosophical fields, including philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science.[246] In these fields he is credited with ushering in the "cognitive revolution",[246] a significant paradigm shift that rejected logical positivism, the prevailing philosophical methodology of the time, and reframed how philosophers think about language and the mind.[168] Chomsky views the cognitive revolution as rooted in 17th-century rationalist ideals.[247] His position—the idea that the mind contains inherent structures to understand language, perception, and thought—has more in common with rationalism than behaviorism.[248] He named one of his key works Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966).[247] This sparked criticism from historians and philosophers who disagreed with Chomsky's interpretations of classical sources and use of philosophical terminology.[f] In the philosophy of language, Chomsky is particularly known for his criticisms of the notion of reference and meaning in human language and his perspective on the nature and function of mental representations.[249]
Chomsky's famous
Chomsky's contributions span intellectual and world history, including the history of philosophy.[252] Irony is a recurring characteristic of his writing, such as rhetorically implying that his readers already know something to be true, which engages the reader more actively in assessing the veracity of his claims.[253]
Personal life
Chomsky endeavors to separate his family life, linguistic scholarship, and political activism from each other.
Chomsky was married to Carol (née Carol Doris Schatz) from 1949 until her death in 2008.[260] They had three children together: Aviva (b. 1957), Diane (b. 1960), and Harry (b. 1967).[263] In 2014, Chomsky married Valeria Wasserman.[264]
Public image
Chomsky is known to use charged language ("corrupt", "fascist", "fraudulent") when describing established political and academic figures, which can polarize his audience but is in keeping with his belief that much scholarship is self-serving.
Reception and influence
[Chomsky's] voice is heard in academia beyond linguistics and philosophy: from computer science to neuroscience, from anthropology to education, mathematics and literary criticism. If we include Chomsky's political activism then the boundaries become quite blurred, and it comes as no surprise that Chomsky is increasingly seen as enemy number one by those who inhabit that wide sphere of reactionary discourse and action.
—Sperlich, 2006[269]
Chomsky has been a defining Western intellectual figure, central to the field of linguistics and definitive in cognitive science, computer science, philosophy, and psychology.[270] In addition to being known as one of the most important intellectuals of his time,[g] Chomsky has a dual legacy as a leader and luminary in both linguistics and the realm of political dissent.[271] Despite his academic success, his political viewpoints and activism have resulted in his being distrusted by mainstream media, and he is regarded as being "on the outer margin of acceptability".[272] Chomsky's public image and social reputation often color his work's public reception.[9]
In academia
McGilvray observes that Chomsky inaugurated the "cognitive revolution" in linguistics,[273] and that he is largely responsible for establishing the field as a formal, natural science,[274] moving it away from the procedural form of structural linguistics dominant during the mid-20th century.[275] As such, some have called Chomsky "the father of modern linguistics".[b] Linguist John Lyons further remarked that within a few decades of publication, Chomskyan linguistics had become "the most dynamic and influential" school of thought in the field.[276] By the 1970s his work had also come to exert a considerable influence on philosophy,[277] and a Minnesota State University Moorhead poll ranked Syntactic Structures as the single most important work in cognitive science.[278] In addition, his work in automata theory and the Chomsky hierarchy have become well known in computer science, and he is much cited in computational linguistics.[279][280][281]
Chomsky's criticisms of behaviorism contributed substantially to the decline of
Chomsky is among the most cited authors living or dead.
In politics
Chomsky's status as the "most-quoted living author" is credited to his political writings, which vastly outnumber his writings on linguistics.[293] Chomsky biographer Wolfgang B. Sperlich characterizes him as "one of the most notable contemporary champions of the people";[255] journalist John Pilger has described him as a "genuine people's hero; an inspiration for struggles all over the world for that basic decency known as freedom. To a lot of people in the margins—activists and movements—he's unfailingly supportive."[266] Arundhati Roy has called him "one of the greatest, most radical public thinkers of our time",[294] and Edward Said thought him "one of the most significant challengers of unjust power and delusions".[266] Fred Halliday has said that by the start of the 21st century Chomsky had become a "guru" for the world's anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements.[266] The propaganda model of media criticism that he and Herman developed has been widely accepted in radical media critiques and adopted to some level in mainstream criticism of the media,[295] also exerting a significant influence on the growth of alternative media, including radio, publishers, and the Internet, which in turn have helped to disseminate his work.[296]
Despite this broad influence, university departments devoted to history and political science rarely include Chomsky's work on their undergraduate syllabi.[297] Critics have argued that despite publishing widely on social and political issues, Chomsky has no formal expertise in these areas; he has responded that such issues are not as complex as many social scientists claim and that almost everyone is able to comprehend them regardless of whether they have been academically trained to do so.[180] Some have responded to these criticisms by questioning the critics' motives and their understanding of Chomsky's ideas. Sperlich, for instance, says that Chomsky has been vilified by corporate interests, particularly in the mainstream press.[135] Likewise, according to McGilvray, many of Chomsky's critics "do not bother quoting his work or quote out of context, distort, and create straw men that cannot be supported by Chomsky's text".[180]
Chomsky drew criticism for not calling the
Chomsky's far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy. A document obtained pursuant to a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request from the U.S. government revealed that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) monitored his activities and for years denied doing so. The CIA also destroyed its files on Chomsky at some point, possibly in violation of federal law.[302] He has often received undercover police protection at MIT and when speaking on the Middle East but has refused uniformed police protection.[303] German news magazine Der Spiegel described Chomsky as "the Ayatollah of anti-American hatred",[135] while American conservative commentator David Horowitz called him "the most devious, the most dishonest and ... the most treacherous intellect in America", whose work is infused with "anti-American dementia" and evidences his "pathological hatred of his own country".[304] Writing in Commentary magazine, the journalist Jonathan Kay described Chomsky as "a hard-boiled anti-American monomaniac who simply refuses to believe anything that any American leader says".[305]
Chomsky's criticism of Israel has led to his being called a traitor to the Jewish people and an
Academic achievements, awards, and honors
In 1970, the London
In the United States he is a
Chomsky received the 2004
In 2011, the US Peace Memorial Foundation awarded Chomsky the US Peace Prize for anti-war activities over five decades.
Chomsky has received honorary doctorates from institutions including the
Various tributes to Chomsky have been dedicated over the years. He is the
Selected bibliography
See also
Notes
- ^ English: /noʊm ˈtʃɒmski/ NOHM CHOM-skee, Hebrew: [ˈnoʔam ˈχomski].
- ^ a b
- Fox 1998: "Mr. Chomsky ... is the father of modern linguistics and remains the field's most influential practitioner."
- Tymoczko & Henle 2004, p. 101: "As the founder of modern linguistics, Noam Chomsky, observed, each of the following sequences of words is nonsense ..."
- Tanenhaus 2016: "At 87, Noam Chomsky, the founder of modern linguistics, remains a vital presence in American intellectual life."
- ^
- Smith 2004, pp. 107 "Chomsky's early work was renowned for its mathematical rigor and he made some contribution to the nascent discipline of mathematical linguistics, in particular the analysis of (formal) languages in terms of what is now known as the Chomsky hierarchy."
- Koerner 1983, pp. 159: "Characteristically, Harris proposes a transfer of sentences from English to Modern Hebrew ... Chomsky's approach to syntax in Syntactic Structures and several years thereafter was not much different from Harris's approach, since the concept of 'deep' or 'underlying structure' had not yet been introduced. The main difference between Harris (1954) and Chomsky (1957) appears to be that the latter is dealing with transfers within one single language only"
- ^
- Koerner 1978, pp. 41f: "it is worth noting that Chomsky cites Hjelmslev's Prolegomena, which had been translated into English in 1953, since the authors' theoretical argument, derived largely from logic and mathematics, exhibits noticeable similarities."
- Seuren 1998, pp. 166: "Both Hjelmslev and Harris were inspired by the mathematical notion of an algorithm as a purely formal production system for a set of strings of symbols. ... it is probably accurate to say that Hjelmslev was the first to try and apply it to the generation of strings of symbols in natural language"
- Hjelmslev 1969 Prolegomena to a Theory of Language. Danish original 1943; first English translation 1954.
- ^
- Macintyre 2010
- Burris 2013: "Noam Chomsky has built his entire reputation as a political dissident on his command of the facts."
- McNeill 2014: "[Chomsky is] often dubbed one of the world's most important intellectuals and its leading public dissident ..."
- ^
- Hamans & Seuren 2010, p. 377: "Having achieved a unique position of supremacy in the theory of syntax and having exploited that position far beyond the narrow circles of professional syntacticians, he felt the need to shore up his theory with the authority of history. It is shown that this attempt, resulting mainly in his Cartesian Linguistics of 1966, was widely, and rightly, judged to be a radical failure"
- ^
- McNeill 2014: "[Chomsky is] often dubbed one of the world's most important intellectuals ..."
- Campbell 2005: "Noam Chomsky, the linguistics professor who has become one of the most outspoken critics of US foreign policy, has won a poll that names him as the world's top public intellectual."
- Robinson 1979: "Judged in terms of the power, range, novelty and influence of his thought, Noam Chomsky is arguably the most important intellectual alive today."
- Flint 1995: "The man once called the most important intellectual alive keeps his office in ... the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology."
- ^
- Knight 2016, p. 2: "In 1992, the Arts and Humanities Citation Index ranked him as the most cited person alive (the Index's top ten being Marx, Lenin, Shakespeare, Aristotle, the Bible, Plato, Freud, Chomsky, Hegel and Cicero)."
- Babe 2015, p. xvii: "[Chomsky] was the most cited living scholar between 1980 and 1992 (according to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index)."
References
- ^ Partee 2015, p. 328.
- ^ a b Chomsky 1991, p. 50.
- ^ Sperlich 2006, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Slife 1993, p. 115.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 58.
- ^ Antony & Hornstein 2003, p. 295.
- ^ Chomsky 2016.
- ^ Harbord 1994, p. 487.
- ^ a b c d e f Barsky 2007, p. 107.
- ^ Smith 2004, p. 185.
- ^ a b Amid the Philosophers.
- ^ Persson & LaFollette 2013.
- ^ Prickett 2002, p. 234.
- ^ Searle 1972.
- ^ a b c d e Adams 2003.
- ^ Gould 1981.
- ^ "Kyle Kulinski Speaks, the Bernie Bros Listen". Archived from the original on March 5, 2020. Retrieved February 9, 2022.
- ^ Keller 2007.
- ^ Swartz 2006.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, p. 9; McGilvray 2014, p. 3.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 9–10; Sperlich 2006, p. 11.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 9.
- ^ a b c Barsky 1997, p. 11.
- ^ Russ, Valerie (July 12, 2021). "Dr. David Chomsky, a cardiologist who made house calls, dies at 86". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Archived from the original on July 12, 2021. Retrieved September 10, 2021.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 11–13.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 15.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 15–17; Sperlich 2006, p. 12; McGilvray 2014, p. 3.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 21–22; Sperlich 2006, p. 14; McGilvray 2014, p. 4.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 15–17.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 14; Sperlich 2006, pp. 11, 14–15.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 23; Sperlich 2006, pp. 12, 14–15, 67; McGilvray 2014, p. 4.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 23.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 16–19; Sperlich 2006, p. 13.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 18.
- ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 18.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 47; Sperlich 2006, p. 16.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 47.
- ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 17.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 48–51; Sperlich 2006, pp. 18–19, 31.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 51–52; Sperlich 2006, p. 32.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 51–52; Sperlich 2006, p. 33.
- ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 33.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, p. 79; Sperlich 2006, p. 20.
- ^ a b Sperlich 2006, p. 34.
- ^ Sperlich 2006, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 81.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 83–85; Sperlich 2006, p. 36; McGilvray 2014, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 38.
- ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 36.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 13, 48, 51–52; Sperlich 2006, pp. 18–19.
- ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 20.
- ^ Sperlich 2006, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 82; Sperlich 2006, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 24; Sperlich 2006, p. 13.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 26.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 36.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 86–87; Sperlich 2006, pp. 38–40.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 87.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. xvi; Barsky 1997, p. 91.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 91; Sperlich 2006, p. 22.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 88–91; Sperlich 2006, p. 40; McGilvray 2014, p. 5; Chomsky 2022.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 88–91.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. 1.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. xvi; Barsky 1997, p. 84.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. 6; Barsky 1997, pp. 96–99; Sperlich 2006, p. 41; McGilvray 2014, p. 5; MacCorquodale 1970, pp. 83–99.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 101–102, 119; Sperlich 2006, p. 23.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 102.
- ^ Knight 2018a.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 103.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 104.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. xvi; Barsky 1997, p. 120.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 122.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 149–152.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 114.
- ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 78.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 120, 122; Sperlich 2006, p. 83.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. xvii; Barsky 1997, p. 123; Sperlich 2006, p. 83.
- ^ Lyons 1978, pp. xvi–xvii; Barsky 1997, p. 163; Sperlich 2006, p. 87.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. 5; Barsky 1997, p. 123.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 134–135.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 162–163.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. 5; Barsky 1997, pp. 127–129.
- ^ Lyons 1978, p. 5; Barsky 1997, pp. 127–129; Sperlich 2006, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 121–122, 131.
- ^ Barsky 1997, p. 121; Sperlich 2006, p. 78.
- ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 121–122, 140–141; Albert 2006, p. 98; Knight 2016, p. 34.
- ^ Chomsky 1996, p. 102.
- ^ Allott, Knight & Smith 2019, p. 62.
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Chomsky believes that calling Israeli policies towards the Palestinians "apartheid" is actually a "gift to Israel"; at least, if by apartheid one refers to South African-style apartheid. "I have held for a long time that the Occupied Territories are much worse than South Africa," the professor explained.
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"Leibowitz warned that if the occupation continues, Israeli Jews are going to turn into what he called, Judeo-Nazis. It's a pretty strong term to use in Israel. Most people couldn't get away with that but he did. It will happen, he argued, simply by the dynamics of occupation," Chomsky told i24NEWS. "If you have your jackboot on somebody's neck, you have to find a way to justify it. So you blame the victims. Leibowitz's warning was a direct reflection of the continued occupation, the humiliation of people, the degradation, and the terrorist attacks by the Israeli government. We have many historical examples of that. Europe has plenty of them. And I think that's what you are seeing in Israel," he explained.
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Further reading
- "American Socrates". Truthdig (Interview). Interviewed by Chris Hedges. June 15, 2014. Archived from the original on June 18, 2014. Retrieved June 16, 2014.
- Changeux, Jean-Pierre; Courrége, Philippe; Danchin, Antoine (1973). "A Theory of the Epigenesis of Neuronal Networks by Selective Stabilization of Synapses". PMID 4517949.
- Chomsky, Noam (1959). "Reviews: Verbal behavior by B. F. Skinner". from the original on September 10, 2019. Retrieved January 3, 2017.
- Chomsky, Noam (2008–2009). "Human nature and the origins of language" (PDF). Radical Anthropology (2): 19–23. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 7, 2019. Retrieved July 12, 2019.
- Chomsky, Noam (February 13, 2015). "The World of Our Grandchildren". Jacobin. Interviewed by David Barsamian. Archived from the original on March 22, 2015. Retrieved February 15, 2015.
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- Farndale, Nigel. "Noam Chomsky interview". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on April 24, 2019. Retrieved May 15, 2016.
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- — (2010). "Chomsky's Atavistic Revolution (With a little help from his enemies)". In Kibbee, Douglas A. (ed.). Chomskyan (R)evolutions. John Benjamins. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-9027211699 – via Internet Archive.
- — (2011). "Théories et politiques de Noam Chomsky" [Political Theories of Noam Chomsky]. Langages (in French). 182 (2): 55–68. ISSN 0458-726X.
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- Lehmann, Christian (1982). "On some current views of the language universal". In Radden, Günter; Dirven, René (eds.). Issues in the Theory of Universal Grammar. Tübingen: Gunter Narr. pp. 75–94. ISBN 978-3-87808-565-2.
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- Nishida, T. (1968). "The social group of wild chimpanzees in the Mahali Mountains" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on October 26, 2018. Retrieved October 26, 2018.
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- Plooij, F. X. (1978). "Some basic traits of language in wild chimpanzees?". In Lock, A. (ed.). Action, Gesture and Symbol: The Emergence of Language. London: ISBN 978-0-12-454050-7.
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- Shalom, Stephen. "Review of Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent, by Robert F. Barsky". New Politics. No. 23. Archived from the original on August 8, 2016. Retrieved October 7, 2016.
- Tattersall, Ian (August 18, 2016). "At the Birth of Language". The New York Review of Books. Vol. LXIII, no. 13. pp. 27–28. Archived from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019, a review of Berwick, Robert C.; Chomsky, Noam. Why Only Us: Language and Evolution. MIT Press.
- Terrace, Herbert S. (1987). Nim: A Chimpanzee who Learned Sign Language. New York, NY: ISBN 978-0-231-06341-8.
External links
- Official website
- Noam Chomsky personal archives at MIT
- Noam Chomsky Audio Conservatory at Internet Archive
- Faculty page at MIT
- Faculty page at University of Arizona
- Noam Chomsky at IMDb
- Noam Chomsky discography at Discogs