Physics
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Physics is the natural science of matter, involving the study of matter,[a] its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force.[2] Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, with its main goal being to understand how the universe behaves.[b][3][4][5] A scientist who specializes in the field of physics is called a physicist.
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines and, through its inclusion of astronomy, perhaps the oldest.[6] Over much of the past two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics were a part of natural philosophy, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century these natural sciences emerged as unique research endeavors in their own right.[c] Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences[3] and suggest new avenues of research in these and other academic disciplines such as mathematics and philosophy.
Advances in physics often enable new
History
The word physics comes from the Latin physica ('study of nature'), which itself is a borrowing of the Greek φυσική (phusikḗ 'natural science'), a term derived from φύσις (phúsis 'origin, nature, property').[8][9][10]
Ancient astronomy
Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. Early civilizations dating before 3000 BCE, such as the Sumerians, ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilisation, had a predictive knowledge and a basic awareness of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. The stars and planets, believed to represent gods, were often worshipped. While the explanations for the observed positions of the stars were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, these early observations laid the foundation for later astronomy, as the stars were found to traverse great circles across the sky,[6] which could not explain the positions of the planets.
According to
Natural philosophy
Medieval European and Islamic
The Western Roman Empire fell in the fifth century, and this resulted in a decline in intellectual pursuits in the western part of Europe. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire (usually known as the Byzantine Empire) resisted the attacks from the barbarians, and continued to advance various fields of learning, including physics.[17]
In the sixth century, Isidore of Miletus created an important compilation of Archimedes' works that are copied in the Archimedes Palimpsest.
In sixth-century Europe John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar, questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics and noted its flaws. He introduced the theory of impetus. Aristotle's physics was not scrutinized until Philoponus appeared; unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal argument, Philoponus relied on observation. On Aristotle's physics Philoponus wrote:
But this is completely erroneous, and our view may be corroborated by actual observation more effectively than by any sort of verbal argument. For if you let fall from the same height two weights of which one is many times as heavy as the other, you will see that the ratio of the times required for the motion does not depend on the ratio of the weights, but that the difference in time is a very small one. And so, if the difference in the weights is not considerable, that is, of one is, let us say, double the other, there will be no difference, or else an imperceptible difference, in time, though the difference in weight is by no means negligible, with one body weighing twice as much as the other[19]
Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics served as an inspiration for Galileo Galilei ten centuries later,[20] during the Scientific Revolution. Galileo cited Philoponus substantially in his works when arguing that Aristotelian physics was flawed.[21][22] In the 1300s Jean Buridan, a teacher in the faculty of arts at the University of Paris, developed the concept of impetus. It was a step toward the modern ideas of inertia and momentum.[23]
Islamic scholarship inherited Aristotelian physics from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further, especially placing emphasis on observation and a priori reasoning, developing early forms of the scientific method.
Although Aristotle's principles of physics was criticized, it is important to identify the evidence upon which he based his views. careful study of the history of science and math reveals the contributions made by older scientists. Aristotle's science was the backbone of the science taught in schools today. Aristotle published many biological works including The Parts of Animals, in which he discusses both biological science and natural science. Aristotle played an important role in the progression of physics and metaphysics, and his beliefs and findings are still taught in science classes today. The explanations that Aristotle gives for his findings are also simple.
When thinking of the elements, Aristotle believed that each of the four classical elements (earth, fire, water, air) had its own natural place.[24] Because of their differing densities, each element will revert to its own specific place in the atmosphere.[25] So, because of their weights, fire would be at the top, air underneath fire, then water, then lastly earth. He also stated that when a small amount of one element enters the natural place of another, the less abundant element will automatically go towards its own natural place. For example, if there is a fire on the ground, the flames go up into the air as an attempt to go back into its natural place where it belongs. Aristotle called his metaphysics "first philosophy" and characterized it as the study of "being as being".[26] Aristotle defined the paradigm of motion as a being or entity encompassing different areas in the same body.[26] Thus, a person who is at a location (A) can move to a new location (B) and still take up the same amount of space. This is involved with Aristotle's belief that motion is a continuum. In terms of matter, Aristotle believed that the change in category (e.g. place) and quality (e.g. color) of an object is defined as "alteration". But, a change in substance is a change in matter. This is also similar to the idea of matter today.
He also devised his own laws of motion that include 1) heavier objects will fall faster, the speed being proportional to the weight and 2) the speed of the object that is falling depends inversely on the density object it is falling through (e.g. density of air).[27] He also stated that, when it comes to violent motion (motion of an object when a force is applied to it by a second object) that the speed that object moves, will only be as fast or strong as the measure of force applied to it.[27] This is also seen in the rules of velocity and force that is taught in physics classes today. These rules are not necessarily what is described in physics today but, they are mostly similar. It is evident that these rules were the backbone for other scientists to revise and edit his beliefs.
The most notable innovations under Islamic scholarship were in the field of optics and vision,[28] which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics (also known as Kitāb al-Manāẓir), written by Ibn al-Haytham, in which he presented the alternative to the ancient Greek idea about vision.[citation needed] In his Treatise on Light as well as in his Kitāb al-Manāẓir, he presented a study of the phenomenon of the camera obscura (his thousand-year-old version of the pinhole camera) and delved further into the way the eye itself works. Using the knowledge of previous scholars, he began to explain how light enters the eye. He asserted that the light ray is focused, but the actual explanation of how light projected to the back of the eye had to wait until 1604. His Treatise on Light explained the camera obscura, hundreds of years before the modern development of photography.[29]
The seven-volume Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manathir) influenced thinking[30] across disciplines from the theory of visual perception to the nature of perspective in medieval art, in both the East and the West, for more than 600 years. This included later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to Johannes Kepler.
The translation of The Book of Optics had an impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build devices that replicated those Ibn al-Haytham had built and understand the way vision works.
Classical
Physics became a separate science when
Major developments in this period include the replacement of the
The discovery of laws in
Modern
Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by
Philosophy
In many ways, physics stems from
By the 19th century, physics was realized as a discipline distinct from philosophy and the other sciences. Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on philosophy of science and its "scientific method" to advance knowledge of the physical world.[41] The scientific method employs a priori reasoning as well as a posteriori reasoning and the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a given theory.[42]
The development of physics has answered many questions of early philosophers and has raised new questions. Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism and realism.[43]
Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance
Core theories
Physics deals with a wide variety of systems, although certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories was experimentally tested numerous times and found to be an adequate approximation of nature. For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at a speed much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research today. Chaos theory, an aspect of classical mechanics, was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Newton (1642–1727).
These central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of their specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity.
Classical
Classical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognized and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics,
Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with
Modern
Modern physics |
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Classical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale of observation, while much of modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on a very large or very small scale. For example, atomic and nuclear physics study matter on the smallest scale at which chemical elements can be identified. The physics of elementary particles is on an even smaller scale since it is concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high-energy physics because of the extremely high energies necessary to produce many types of particles in particle accelerators. On this scale, ordinary, commonsensical notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid.[53]
The two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concepts of space, time, and matter from that presented by classical physics. Classical mechanics approximates nature as continuous, while quantum theory is concerned with the discrete nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of such phenomena. The theory of relativity is concerned with the description of phenomena that take place in a
Fundamental concepts in modern physics
- Causality
- Covariance
- Action
- Physical field
- Symmetry
- Physical interaction
- Statistical ensemble
- Quantum
- Wave
- Particle
Difference
While physics itself aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability.
Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match predictions provided by classical mechanics. Einstein contributed the framework of special relativity, which replaced notions of
Relation to other fields
Prerequisites
Mathematics provides a compact and exact language used to describe the order in nature. This was noted and advocated by
Physics uses mathematics
Ontology is a prerequisite for physics, but not for mathematics. It means physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the real world, while mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, even beyond the real world. Thus physics statements are synthetic, while mathematical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hypotheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematics statements have to be only logically true, while predictions of physics statements must match observed and experimental data.
The distinction is clear-cut, but not always obvious. For example,
Pure physics is a branch of
Application and influence
Applied physics is a general term for physics research, which is intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem.
The approach is similar to that of applied mathematics. Applied physicists use physics in scientific research. For instance, people working on accelerator physics might seek to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical physics.
Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, statics, a subfield of
With the
There is also considerable
Research
Scientific method
Physicists use the scientific method to test the validity of a
A scientific law is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relation that expresses a fundamental principle of some theory, such as Newton's law of universal gravitation.[62]
Theory and experiment
Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both agree with existing experiments and successfully predict future experimental results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and experiment are developed separately, they strongly affect and depend upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimental results defy explanation by existing theories, prompting intense focus on applicable modelling, and when new theories generate experimentally testable predictions, which inspire the development of new experiments (and often related equipment).[63]
Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy; electromagnetism was unified this way.
Experimental physics expands, and is expanded by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists who are involved in
Scope and aims
Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the "fundamental science".[60] Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then connect these causes together.
For example, the
Research fields
Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into nuclear and particle physics; condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; astrophysics; and applied physics. Some physics departments also support physics education research and physics outreach.[68]
Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialised, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Einstein (1879–1955) and Lev Landau (1908–1968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.[h]
The major fields of physics, along with their subfields and the theories and concepts they employ, are shown in the following table.
Nuclear and particle
Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy and the interactions between them.[69] In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high-energy accelerators,[70] detectors,[71] and computer programs[72] necessary for this research. The field is also called "high-energy physics" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high-energy collisions of other particles.[73]
Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of
Atomic, molecular, and optical
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter—matter and light—matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of their relevant energy scales. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view).
Atomic physics studies the
are considered part of nuclear physics.Condensed matter
Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter.[80][81] In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of particles in a system is extremely large and the interactions between them are strong.[82]
The most familiar examples of condensed phases are
Condensed matter physics is the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields.
Astrophysics
Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the Solar System, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.[90]
The discovery by
Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century,
The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of
Numerous possibilities and discoveries are anticipated to emerge from new data from the
Current research
Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts.
In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of
In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. The Large Hadron Collider has already found the Higgs boson, but future research aims to prove or disprove the supersymmetry, which extends the Standard Model of particle physics. Research on the nature of the major mysteries of dark matter and dark energy is also currently ongoing.[97]
Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity,[98] chaos,[99] or turbulence[100] are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections.[i][101]
These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In the 1932 Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Horace Lamb said:[102]
I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.
Education
Career
A
See also
- Earth science – Fields of natural science related to Earth
- Neurophysics – branch of biophysics dealing with the development and use of physical methods to gain information about the nervous system
- Psychophysics – Branch of knowledge relating physical stimuli and psychological perception
- Relationship between mathematics and physics – Study of how mathematics and physics relate to each other
- Science tourism – Travel to notable science locations
Lists
Notes
- atomic hypothesis as the single most prolific scientific concept.[1]
- philosophical world.
- ^ Francis Bacon's 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the development of scientific method.[7]
- ^ Calculus was independently developed at around the same time by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz; while Leibniz was the first to publish his work and develop much of the notation used for calculus today, Newton was the first to develop calculus and apply it to physical problems. See also Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy
- ^ Noll notes that some universities still use this title.[40]
- ^ See, for example, the influence of Kant and Ritter on Ørsted.
- ^ Concepts which are denoted hypothetical can change with time. For example, the atom of nineteenth-century physics was denigrated by some, including Ernst Mach's critique of Ludwig Boltzmann's formulation of statistical mechanics. By the end of World War II, the atom was no longer deemed hypothetical.
- arXiv.org
- ^ See the work of Ilya Prigogine, on 'systems far from equilibrium', and others.
References
- ^ Feynman, Leighton & Sands 1963, p. I-2 "If, in some cataclysm, all [] scientific knowledge were to be destroyed [save] one sentence [...] what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is [...] that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another ..."
- ^ Maxwell 1878, p. 9 "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events."
- ^ a b c Young & Freedman 2014, p. 1 "Physics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Scientists of all disciplines use the ideas of physics, including chemists who study the structure of molecules, paleontologists who try to reconstruct how dinosaurs walked, and climatologists who study how human activities affect the atmosphere and oceans. Physics is also the foundation of all engineering and technology. No engineer could design a flat-screen TV, an interplanetary spacecraft, or even a better mousetrap without first understanding the basic laws of physics. (...) You will come to see physics as a towering achievement of the human intellect in its quest to understand our world and ourselves."
- ^ Young & Freedman 2014, p. 2 "Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns that relate these phenomena."
- ^ Holzner 2006, p. 7 "Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you."
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in order to better understand just how conclusive Aristotle's demonstration is, we may, in my opinion, deny both of his assumptions. And as to the first, I greatly doubt that Aristotle ever tested by experiment whether it be true that two stones, one weighing ten times as much as the other, if allowed to fall, at the same instant, from a height of, say, 100 cubits, would so differ in speed that when the heavier had reached the ground, the other would not have fallen more than 10 cubits.
Simp. – His language would seem to indicate that he had tried the experiment, because he says: We see the heavier; now the word see shows that he had made the experiment.
Sagr. – But I, Simplicio, who have made the test can assure[107] you that a cannon ball weighing one or two hundred pounds, or even more, will not reach the ground by as much as a span ahead of a musket ball weighing only half a pound, provided both are dropped from a height of 200 cubits. - ^ Lindberg 1992, p. 162.
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- ^ Mastin 2010 "Although usually remembered today as a philosopher, Plato was also one of ancient Greece's most important patrons of mathematics. Inspired by Pythagoras, he founded his Academy in Athens in 387 BC, where he stressed mathematics as a way of understanding more about reality. In particular, he was convinced that geometry was the key to unlocking the secrets of the universe. The sign above the Academy entrance read: 'Let no-one ignorant of geometry enter here.'"
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External links
- Physics at Quanta Magazine
- Usenet Physics FAQ – FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups
- Website of the Nobel Prize in physics – Award for outstanding contributions to the subject
- World of Physics – Online encyclopedic dictionary of physics
- Nature Physics – Academic journal
- Physics – Online magazine by the American Physical Society
- Physics/Publications at Curlie– Directory of physics related media
- The Vega Science Trust – Science videos, including physics
- HyperPhysics website – Physics and astronomy mind-map from Georgia State University
- Physics at MIT OpenCourseWare – Online course material from Massachusetts Institute of Technology
- The Feynman Lectures on Physics