Syrian Social Nationalist Party
Syrian Social Nationalist Party الحزب السوري القومي الاجتماعي | |
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The Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP;
Founded in
In Syria, SSNP operated as an
Background
Early Syrian nationalists
An influential follower of al-Bustani was the Belgian
This was also accompanied with the rise of a profoundly idealistic patriotism, largely resembling European romantic nationalism, idealizing the coming of a National Revival to the Levant, that would shake off the Ottoman past and propel back what many started to see again as the cradle of civilization into the modern world's front stage. In that aspect, the works of Kahlil Gibran who began expressing his belief in Syrian nationalism and patriotism are central. As Gibran said,
"I believe in you, and I believe in your destiny. I believe that you are contributors to this new civilization. ... I believe that it is in you to be good citizens. And what is it to be a good citizen? ... It is to stand before the towers of New York and Washington, Chicago and San Francisco saying in your hearts, "I am the descendent of a people the built Damascus and Byblos, and Tyre and Sidon and Antioch, and I am here to build with you, and with a will."[26]
History
Foundation and early years
The SSNP was founded by
Saadeh emigrated again to Brazil in 1938 and afterwards to Argentina, only to return to Lebanon in 1947 following the
While the Kataeb was committed to the notion of Lebanon as a
The Party took a radical stance against the traditional notable class in Syria and Lebanon, including the large landowners and feudal lords, and called for the emancipation of the working class and the peasantry away from religion and sectarianism, into a socialist-inspired production-based economy. The SSNP also called for the reclamation of
When the
When the Arabs lost the war in 1948, Saadeh propelled the Party into a fully confrontational stance: He deemed
On 4 July 1949, a year after the declaration of the establishment of the state of
SSNP in Lebanon
From confrontation to accommodation
After Saadeh was executed and its high-ranking leaders were arrested, the party remained underground
1961 coup d'etat
On the last day of 1961, two SSNP members, company commanders in the Lebanese army, led an unsuccessful attempted lightning coup against Fouad Chehab, supported by some 200 civilian SSNP members.[35][31] In the scholarly literature, the coup has been explained as stemming from the party's ideological preference for violence ("bullets over ballots"), its frustration at exclusion from the Lebanese state, and both political and military criticism of the rule of Fouad Chehab.[31]
Advisors of Chehab who allegedly witnessed armed SSNP partisans gathering around the central areas of Beirut rushed to the presidential palace to inform Chehab of the insurrection. This resulted in a renewed proscription and the imprisonment and/or execution of many SSNP leaders.[36] Most of the party's known activists remained in prison or exile until a general amnesty in 1969.[35] In 1969, the party re-aligned towards Arab nationalism.[34]
Lebanese Civil War
Syrian Social Nationalist Party | |
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Leaders |
With the outbreak of the
After the defeat of anti-Israeli forces in the 1982 Lebanon War, the SSNP joined a number of the organizations who regrouped to resist the Israeli occupation, including the killing of two Israeli soldiers in a Wimpy Cafe in west Beirut by party member Khalid Alwan. The U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation blames the SSNP for the assassination, in 1982, of Bachir Gemayel, Lebanon's newly elected president supported by the Israelis besieging Beirut.[37] An SSNP member, Habib Shartouni, was arrested for the assassination and eventually convicted for it in 2017.[38]
In 1983, the party joined the
After the Civil War
The SSNP in Lebanon was broadly supportive of the Syrian occupation of Lebanon and was allied to pro-Syrian parties (including the March 8 Alliance) in the aftermath of the occupation.
The SSNP participated in a number of general elections in Lebanon, winning six seats in
Assaad Hardan was party leader for two terms. Hardan was succeeded by Rabih Banat in 2020, but with a growing split in the party between Hardan's followers, who are closer to the Syrian government and the March 8 Alliance, and Banat's followers, who are closer to the administration of Saad Hariri.[34] As of the 2022 Lebanese elections, the party did not win any seat and currently has no representation in the Lebanese Parliament.
During clashes in the context of the 2023
SSNP in Syria
Saadeh had intended SSNP to be an organization that created an Italian-style
The SSNP's stance during the Lebanese civil war and in Lebanese politics—where it has become a close ally of Hezbollah[21]—was consistent with that of Syria, which facilitated a rapprochement between the party and the Syrian government. During the latter years of Hafez al-Assad's presidency, the party was increasingly tolerated. After the succession of his son Bashar al-Assad in 2000, this process continued. In 2001, while still officially banned, the party was permitted to attend meetings of the Ba'ath-led National Progressive Front coalition of legal parties as an observer. In spring 2005, the party was legalised in Syria, in what has been described as "an attempt to allow a limited form of political activity".[21]
Over time, the SSNP and the Syrian Ba'athist regime experienced a dramatic turnaround in their historical relationship, from enemies to allies. The process started as the party reckoned that Hafez al-Assad's regional goals, such as consolidating Syria's control over Lebanon and the
In the
Role in the Syrian Civil War
In 2016, estimates of the number of SSNP fighters in Syria ranged from 6,000 to 8,000.[21] Lebanese fighters were included in their ranks, even though the party claims that "their proportion within the group's total fighting force has decreased steadily, as more Syrians sign up".[21]
By February 2014, SSNP fighters were primarily deployed in the governorates of
The party was allowed a larger role in the Syrian People's Assembly: it fielded thirty candidates for the 2016 parliamentary election, winning seven seats.[21]
However, starting from 2018, these gains began to be reversed, as Bashar al-Assad initiated an intense
The SSNP was one of the biggest losers in the 2020 Syrian parliamentary elections, with its allotted seats being reduced from seven to three. The elections showcased the absolute dominance of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath party in the political system by increasing the Ba'athist share to two-thirds of the total, or 167 seats. This was also part of the Assad regime's wider clampdown on SSNP activities to curb its influence in Syria that was gained during the civil war. The Ba'athist government also dissolved the Eagles of the Whirlwind, the SSNP's paramilitary wing in the country.[56]
The anti-SSNP clampdown was also part of Bashar al-Assad's feud with his cousin
In 2023, the SSNP announced their support for
SSNP in Jordan
In 1966, King Hussein had his security services sent into action to eradicate the SSNP from Jordan. The party had been active among the Palestinian population.[35]
In 2013 followers of the party established the "Movement of Syrian Social Nationalists in Jordan".[62][63]
Ideology
Scholars and analysts have debated how the SSNP's ideology should be described. For example,
Throughout the
According to historian Stanley G. Payne, interwar Arab nationalism was influenced by European fascism, with the creation of at least seven Arab nationalist shirt movements similar to the brown shirt movement by 1939, with the most influenced ones being the SSNP, the Iraqi Futawa youth movement and the Young Egypt movement.[70] These three movements would share characteristics like being territorially expansionist, with the SSNP wanting the complete control of Syria, belief in the superiority of their own people (with Saadeh theorizing a "distinct and naturally superior" Syrian race), being "nonrationalist, anti-intellectual, and highly emotional" and "[emphasizing] military virtues and power [and stressing] self-sacrifice".[70] Also according to Payne, all these movements received strong influence from European fascism and praised the Italian and German fascism but "[they never became] fully developed fascist movements, and none reproduced the full characteristics of European fascism"; the influence in Arab nationalism remained long after 1945.[70] Also, Saadeh's superior race was not a pure one, but a fusion of all races in Syrian history.[70] The SSNP would be "[an] elite group, with little structure for mobilization".[70]
Nationalism
Greater Syria, natural Syria
While in jail from early February to early May 1936, Saadeh completed The Genesis of Nations which he had started writing three months before the French authorities in Lebanon discovered the secret organization and arrested its leader and his assistants. In his book, Saadeh formulated his belief in the existence of a Syrian nation in a homeland defined as embracing all historic Syria extended to the Suez Canal in the south, and that includes modern Syria, Palestine, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait. The boundaries of the historic environment in which the Syrian nation evolved went much beyond the scope usually ascribed to Syria, extending from the Taurus range in the north-east and the
Greater Syria corresponds to the
However, Saadeh believed that while the economic modes of production can create culture, culture acquires a life of its own with time and eventually becomes embedded and perpetuated in its people, who come to recognize themselves as a living organism. Hence comes the importance of the state in serving the interest of the nation, and of national democracy as the legitimate source of political legislation. The party espouses the idea that the fundamental basis of nation is the territory or geographical region, not the ethnical bond. The natural environment and geographical specifications of a certain land is what eventually allows, or disallows, its transition from a socio-economic phase to another.[citation needed]
These natural geographical factors hence create the societal framework in which man establishes his existence, beliefs, habits, and value systems. Saadeh's critique of ethnic nationalisms led him to hence develop a framework of geographical nationalism, the idea of the "natural homeland". When he applied this model to the case of the Fertile Crescent, the conclusion he reached was straightforward: the natural geographical factors of the basin lying east of the Mediterranean is what has allowed it to become the
In Saadeh's vision of "harmony" among the country's ethnic and religious communities through a return to a so-called Syrian "racial unity" which was itself in fact a mixture of races, neither Islam nor pan-Arabism was important, and therefore religion wasn't either.[35] Saadeh's concept of the nation was shaped mainly by historical concrete interactions amongst people over the centuries in a given geography, rather than being based on ethnic origins, race, language or religion. This led him also to conclude that the Arabs could not form one nation, but many nations could be called Arab.[17]
Syrian people
Unlike other militant nationalist parties in the Arab World, Syrian Social Nationalist Party was unique in its espousal of an exclusive form of nationalism which glorified the pre-Christian era, advocating the union of all Syrian peoples under a "
Romantic nationalism
The attitude of the party and its founder towards minority
Social nationalism
While the Renaissance is underlined as a romanticized notion of spiritual, intellectual, and patriotic elevation, the SSNP elaborated a simple yet straightforward doctrine pertaining to how the Syrian People ought to organize itself once the Renaissance has begun, albeit the fact that Saadeh had not developed the idea completely. The social-nationalist model elaborated by Saadeh is reflected in the "Communiqué of the First Social Nationalist Revolution of 1949".
The first of these principles is the abolition of
Liberation war
Perhaps one of the most striking features of the Party throughout its history is the zealous and the almost mystical devotion of its members to the notion of
Since its foundation in 1932, the SSNP adopted direct action and violence against those it deemed as the enemies of the Syrian People, to which it referred to as the "forces of darkness", while the founder referred to the Party as the "Sons of Life" (Abna` al-Hayat): Colonialism and particularly French colonialism in Syria and Lebanon, the feudal landowning and notable class, politicians it deemed to be traitors or corrupt, Zionist settlement of Palestine, Christian separatism in Lebanon, Islamic fundamentalism in Syria, a list to which could be added the communists, although this last addition would change in the course of the years as both would join ranks in the LNRF.[citation needed]
In 1949, it declared the "First Renaissance Revolution" against the Lebanese government, an armed confrontation with the Lebanese and Syrian security forces that ended in a disaster and the execution of Antun Saadeh by the Lebanese authorities on 8 July. Not too long later, party members assassinated the Lebanese Prime Minister
In 1982, party member
Today, the party's military wing fights alongside the
Secularism
The SSNP's ideology was an entirely secular form of nationalism; indeed, it posited the complete separation of religion and politics as one of the two fundamental conditions for real national unity, alongside economic and social reform.[75]
Party form
The SSNP was organised with a hierarchical structure and a powerful leader.[75]
Iconography and symbolism
Emblem and flag
The party's emblem is the whirlwind (Arabic: زوبعة, romanized: Zawba'a). It was designed by the SSNP students at the American University of Beirut while the party was still clandestine and before the French authorities had uncovered it in 1936. Saadeh stated the whirlwind was found engraved on ancient Syrian artifacts, and it is known from for example Sumerian art. The SSNP emblem has been said to be a combination of the Islamic crescent and the Christian cross.[76][77] The party flag features a red hurricane, called the Zawba'a, within a white disc on a black background. Each arm symbolizes one of the four virtues of the party's mission: freedom, duty, discipline and power.[2]: 45 According to SSNP lore, the black color symbolizes the Dark Ages of Ottoman rule, colonialism, sectarian division, national division, and backwardness. The Zawba'a represents the blood of the SSNP martyrs bound together as Muslims and Christians through freedom, duty, discipline and power as a hurricane to purge the Dark Ages and spark their nation's rejuvenation and renaissance. Critics and scholars claim that the symbol was modeled after the Nazi swastika[67][68][69][78][79][80] a claim that the party vehemently denies.[21]
Criticism
Ideological criticism
Arab nationalist thinker Sati' al-Husri considered that Saadeh "misrepresented" Arab nationalism, incorrectly associating it with a Bedouin image of the Arab and with Muslim sectarianism. Palestinian historian Maher Charif sees Saadeh's theory as a response to the religious diversity of Syria, and points to his later extension of his vision of the Syrian nation to include Iraq, a country also noted for its religious diversity, as further evidence for this.[81] The party also accepted that due to "religious and political considerations", the separate existence of Lebanon was necessary for the time being.[75] From 1945 onward, the party adopted a more nuanced stance regarding Arab nationalism, seeing Syrian unity as a potential first step towards an Arab union led by Syria.[75]
Anglo-American journalist
"What shook me is how nearly it could have got fantastically nasty. We could have been hurt or taken away. These militias have their own private dungeons. I wouldn't fancy spending time in one of those."[82]
Scholarly criticism
Lebanese historian Kamal Salibi gives a somewhat contrasting interpretation, pointing to the position of the Greek Orthodox community as a large minority in both Syria and Lebanon for whom "the concept of pan-Syrianism was more meaningful than the concept of Arabism" while at the same time they resented Maronite dominance in Lebanon. According to Salibi,
Saadeh found a ready following among his co-religionists. His idea of secular pan-Syrianism also proved attractive to many Druzes and Shiites; to Christians other than the Greek Orthodox, including some Maronites who were disaffected by both Lebanism and Arabism; and also to many Sunnite Muslims who set a high value on secularism, and who felt that they had far more in common with their fellow Syrians of whatever religion or denomination than with fellow Sunnite or Muslim Arabs elsewhere. Here again, an idea of nationalism had emerged which had sufficient credit to make it valid. In the Lebanese context, however, it became ready cover for something more archaic, which was essentially Greek Orthodox particularism.[84]
Prof. Salibi remarks on the beginnings of Saadeh's party in the 1930s: "[A]mong its first members were students and young graduates of the American University of Beirut." This early party was "mainly Greek Orthodox and Protestants with some Shi'ites and Druzes ... ." In Lebanon as a whole the party was not popular. "Christians were generally opposed to their Syrian unionism, while Moslems were suspicious of their reservations with regard to pan-Arabism. The Lebanese authorities were able to suppress them without difficulty."[85]
See also
- Antoun Saadeh
- 1958 Lebanon crisis
- Lebanese Civil War
- Lebanese National Movement
- Mountain War (Lebanon)
- Lebanese Communist Party
- Anti-Zionism
- Secularism in Lebanon
- Syrian Social Nationalist Party – Intifada Wing
Notes
References
Citations
- ^ "كلمة رئيس الحزب السّوريّ القوميّ الاجتماعيّ الأمين ربيع بنات لمناسبة الأول من آذار".
- ^ ISBN 978-0-203-88856-8.
... during his speech of 1 June 1935 ... Antun Saadeh declared ... '... The Syrian Social Nationalist Party is neither a Hitlerite nor a Fascist one, but a pure social nationalist one. It is not based on useless imitation, but is the result of an authentic invention. ...'
- ^ Antun Saadeh, The Genesis of Nations, (Dar al-Fikr, Beirut)
- ^ Antun Saadeh, "The Explanation of the Principles". URL: http://www.ssnp.com/new/library/saadeh/principles/ Archived 27 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Danial Pipes (August 1988). "Radical Politics and the Syrian Social Nationalist Party".
- ISBN 978-1465453136.
- ISBN 978-1-136-00614-2.
- ^ MEED. Economic East Economic Digest, Limited. April 1983.
- ISBN 978-1-8386-0640-4.)
It survived and made itself useful during Syria's occupation of Lebanon by relying on its militia, unique ideology, and adopting a politically pragmatic approach that brought the SSNP from the right side of the political spectrum to its current place in the camp of the left.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ISBN 978-1-136-00614-2.
- ^ "In Search of Greater Syria: Book Summary". Bloomsbury Collections. 2021.
- ^ Zambelis, Chris (26 March 2014). "Assad's Hurricane: A Profile of the Paramilitary Wing of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party". refworld. Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023.
- ^ "About". ssnp.com. Syrian Social Nationalist Party. 17 May 2004. Archived from the original on 17 May 2006. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
Our Syria has distinct natural boundaries…
- ^ a b Cecilia Baeza (5 December 2018). "Arabism and its Repercussions: Forms of Solidarity among Syrians in Latin America". Arab Reform Initiative. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
- ^ http://www.debka.com/headline.php?hid=5425 Archived 5 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine The SSNP is now Syria's largest party after the ruling Ba'ath.
- S2CID 32051188.
- ^ OCLC 1248759109.)
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ "Syrian Arab news agency – SANA – Syria : Syria news ::". Archived from the original on 8 May 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
- ^ "Noticias de Prensa Latina". Retrieved 11 April 2016.
- ^ "IDEOLOGY". Archived from the original on 12 April 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Samaha, Nour (28 March 2016). "The Eagles of the Whirlwind". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
- ^ Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983) 100–102
- ^ Elizabeth Suzanne Kassab, Contemporary Arab Thought, Cultural Critique in Comparative Perspective (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 20–21
- ^ Paul Salem, Bitter Legacy: Ideology and Politics in the Arab World (Syracuse University Press, 1994)
- ^ Asher Kaufman, "Henri Lammens and Syrian Nationalism," in Adel Beshara, The Origins of Syrian Nationhood: Histories, Pioneers and Identity.
- ^ Khalil Gibran, "To Young Americans of Syrian Origin". URL: http://www.alhewar.com/gibran_to_young_americans.htm
- ^ See: Youssef al-Debs, "In the Convoy of the Renaissance"
- ^ Nordbrush, Nazism in Syria and Lebanon, 85–87
- ^ a b A. Saadeh. The Genesis of Nations. Translated and Reprinted. Dar Al-Fikr. Beirut, 2004
- ^ See: "The Rise of the Revolutionaries" in Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Arab Independence
- ^ ISBN 978-1-136-00614-2.
- ^ "The Wayback Machine has not archived that URL". daharchives.alhayat.com.[dead link]
- ISBN 978-0-86372-348-3.
- ^ a b c d e f g "What is left of Lebanon's Syrian Social Nationalist Party?". L'Orient Today. 27 May 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f "Behind the Terror". The Atlantic. June 1987.
- ^ U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States Volume 17, Near East,1961–1963, (Washington, DC: GPO 1993), 383–384.
- ^ Neil A. Lewis (18 May 1988). "U.S. Links Men in Bomb Case To Lebanon Terrorist Group". The New York Times.
- ^ "Lebanese court issues death sentence over 1982 Gemayel assassination". Reuters. 20 October 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
- ^ Ricolfi, L., & Campana, P. (2004). Suicide missions in the Palestinian area: a new database Archived 28 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "Aussie's death sparks Lebanon alert". The Sydney Morning Herald. 12 May 2008.
- ^ Jackson, Andra (12 May 2008). "Melbourne man killed in Lebanon 'was on holiday'". The Age. Melbourne.
- ^ "Australian killed in Lebanon: DFAT". The Hawkesbury Gazette. Archived from the original on 2 August 2008. Retrieved 12 May 2008.
- Daily Star (Lebanon). Archived from the originalon 17 May 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2008.
- ^ Chulov, Martin; Davis, Michael (13 May 2008). "Australian Fahdi Sheikh's body mutilated by Beirut mob". The Australian.
- ^ "الحزب السوري القومي الاجتماعي" نعى عنصرًا له أثناء "قيامه بواجبه القوميّ على طريق فلسطين"". gulf365.net (in Arabic). 15 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
- ISBN 978-3-030-92675-5.)
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- ^ a b c Terry Glavin (26 February 2015). "A Liberal Conundrum In Nepean".
- ^ a b Charles Davis (30 September 2019). "Pro-Assad Lobby Group Rewards Bloggers On Both The Left And The Right".
- ^ a b c d e "The SSNP 'Hurricane' in the Syrian conflict: Syria and South Lebanon Are The Same Battlefield". Al-Akhbar in English. Archived from the original on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
- ^ Natalia Sancha (5 April 2016). "El Ejército sirio expulsa al Estado Islámico del desierto". El País. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
- ^ Lucas, Scott (25 February 2021). "How Assad Regime Tightened Syria's One-Party Rule". EA Worldview. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021.
- ^ Abdul-Jalil, Moghrabi, Murad, Yamen (3 July 2020). "Al-Assad attempts to boost "Ba'ath" vigor to tighten control". Enab Baladi. Archived from the original on 6 July 2020.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Shaar, Akil, Karam, Samy (28 January 2021). "Inside Syria's Clapping Chamber: Dynamics of the 2020 Parliamentary Elections". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Shaar, Akil, Karam, Samy (28 January 2021). "Inside Syria's Clapping Chamber: Dynamics of the 2020 Parliamentary Elections". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021.
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: CS1 maint: location (link - ^ "The Intractable Roots of Assad-Makhlouf Drama in Syria". Newslines Institute. 15 May 2020. Archived from the original on 7 March 2021.
- ^ Kataw, Nawwar (14 October 2019). "هل هي خطوة انتقامية من آل مخلوف؟ كل ما تريد معرفته عن الحزب القومي السوري الاجتماعي وحل النظام له" [Is it a revenge move from the Makhlouf family? All you need to know about the Syrian National Social Party and the regime's solution to it]. Arab Post. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023.
- ^ "بيان رقم 2: "طوفان الأقصى" عزة فلسطين والأمة". الحزب السوري القومي الاجتماعي (in Arabic). Retrieved 14 October 2023.
- ^ "الحزب: الارهاب اداة للمشروع اليهودي لاستهداف أجيالنا الجديدة". الحزب السوري القومي الاجتماعي (in Arabic). Retrieved 14 October 2023.
- ^ Ammon News. اطلاق تيار السوريين القوميين الاجتماعيين في الأردن
- ^ Al-Hadath News. السوريون القوميون في الاردن يحتفلون بذكرى ميلاد انطون سعادة Archived 21 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-1-8386-0640-4.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ^ "Saadeh". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
- ^ ISBN 9781860647154.
- ^ a b Ya'ari, Ehud (June 1987). "Behind the Terror". Atlantic Monthly.
[The SSNP] greet their leaders with a Hitlerian salute; sing their Arabic anthem, "Greetings to You, Syria," to the strains of "Deutschland, Deutschland über alles"; and throng to the symbol of the red hurricane, a swastika in circular motion.
- ^ ISBN 0-19-506022-9.
The SSNP flag, which features a curved swastika called the red hurricane (zawba'a), points to the party's fascistic origins.
- ^ ISBN 9780674862364.
- ^ ISBN 9781857285956.
- ^ Sa'ade, Anoun (2004). The Genesis of Nations. Department of Culture of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. p. 3.
- ^ See: Adel Beshara, "Where we Stand", http://www.ssnp.com/old/ourstand.htm Archived 26 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ See: Adel Beshara, Outright Assassination, the Trial and Execution of Antun Saadeh (Ithaca, 2010)
- ^ "Lebanon – Al Jazeera". Lebanon's women warriors. 24 April 2010. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
- ^ a b c d Hourani, p. 326
- ^ "SSNP website". Archived from the original on 14 July 2012.
- ^ Jesse McDonald (4 June 2017). "The SSNP's Military: The Eagles of the Whirlwind & Their Emblem". joshualandis.com. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
- ISBN 1-86064-715-4.
Saadeh, the party's 'leader for life', was an admirer of Adolf Hitler and influenced by Nazi and fascist ideology. This went beyond adopting a reversed swastika as the party's symbol and singing the party's anthem to Deutschland über alles, and included developing the cult of a leader, advocating totalitarian government, and glorifying an ancient pre-Christian past and the organic whole of the Syrian Volk or nation.
- ISBN 0-297-78547-8.
[The SSNP] had been founded in 1932 as a youth movement, deliberately modeled on Hitler's Nazi Party. For its symbol it invented a curved swastika, called the Zawbah.
- ^ Michael W. Suleiman (1965). Political parties in Lebanon. University of Wisconsin–Madison. p. 134.
The flag of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party has a black background with a red hurricane (reversed swastika) in the middle, encircled by a white rim ...
also pages 111–112 in the edition of Cornell University Press, 1967: "Thus, the Syrian national anthem for the PPS sang "Syria, Syria uber alles" to the same familiar tune of "Deutschland, Deutschland uber alles" (176) The hand gestures in saluting and the "long live the leader" bore striking resemblances to the Nazi practice. The swastika was replaced with a hurricane as a PPS symbol, (177) while the storm or combat troops were present in both. Both Hitler and Saadeh, in addition to having the same title of 'the leader', held and exercised all legislative and executive authority." - ^ Charif, p. 216
- ^ a b Robinson, James (19 February 2009). "Christopher Hitchens on Beirut attack: 'they kept coming. Six or seven at first'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 September 2022.
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (May 2009). "The Swastika and the Cedar". Vanity Fair. Archived from the original on 8 August 2022.
- ^ Kamal Salibi (1988, 1998), pp. 54–55
- ^ K. S. Salibi, The Modern History of Lebanon (New York: Praeger 1965) at 180.
Sources
- Charif, Maher, Rihanat al-nahda fi'l-fikr al-'arabi, Damascus, Dar al-Mada, 2000
- Hourani, Albert, La Pensée Arabe et l'Occident (French translation of Arab Thought in the Liberal Age)
- Irwin, Robert (3 January 2005). "An Arab Surrealist". The Nation. pp. 23–24, 37–38.
- Salibi, K. S., The Modern History of Lebanon (New York: Praeger 1965)
- Salibi, Kamal, A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered, University of California, Berkeley, 1988; reprint: London, ISBN 1-86064-912-2
- Seale, Patrick, Asad: the Struggle for the Middle East, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1988 ISBN 0-520-06976-5
- Solomon, Christopher (2021). In Search of Greater Syria: The History and Politics of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party (1st ed.). London, UK: ISBN 978-1838606404.
- Yonker, Carl C. (2021). The Rise and Fall of Greater Syria: A Political History of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. Berlin: ISBN 978-3110728477.
External links
- SSNP website (in Arabic)
- SSNP School Archived 1 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- Tahawolat Magazine Articles about society and culture
- Attacks attributed to the SSNP