Tsardom of Russia
Tsardom of Russia Русское царство Russkoye tsarstvo | |||||||||||||||||||
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1547–1721 | |||||||||||||||||||
Flag
(1693–1721) Coat of arms
(1667–1721) | |||||||||||||||||||
Ivan IV (first) | |||||||||||||||||||
• 1682–1721 | Peter I (last) | ||||||||||||||||||
Legislature | Boyar Duma (1547–1549; 1684–1711) Zemsky Sobor (1549–1684) Governing Senate (1711–1721) | ||||||||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||||||||
• Coronation of Ivan IV | 16 January 1547 | ||||||||||||||||||
1558–1583 | |||||||||||||||||||
1598–1613 | |||||||||||||||||||
1654–1667 | |||||||||||||||||||
1700–1721 | |||||||||||||||||||
10 September 1721 | |||||||||||||||||||
2 November 1721 | |||||||||||||||||||
Population | |||||||||||||||||||
• 1500[2] | 6 million | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1600[2] | 12 million | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1646[3] | 14 million | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1719[4] | 15.7 million | ||||||||||||||||||
Currency | Russian ruble | ||||||||||||||||||
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Today part of | Belarus Finland Russia Ukraine |
The Tsardom of Russia,[a] also known as the Tsardom of Muscovy,[b] was the centralized Russian state from the assumption of the title of tsar by Ivan IV in 1547 until the foundation of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great in 1721.
From 1550 to 1700, Russia grew by an average of 35,000 square kilometres (14,000 sq mi) per year.
Name
While the oldest
On 16 January 1547, Ivan IV was crowned the tsar and grand prince of all Russia (Царь и Великий князь всея Руси, Tsar i Velikiy knyaz vseya Rusi),[21] thereby proclaiming the Tsardom of Russia, or "the Great Russian Tsardom", as it was called in the coronation document,[22] by Constantinople Patriarch Jeremiah II,[23][24] and in numerous official texts.[25][26][27][28][29][30] The formula in manuscripts "to all his state of Great Russia" later replaced those found in other manuscripts – "to all the Russian realm" (vo vse Rossisskoe tsarstvo); the former is more typical of the 17th century, when the usage of the term "Great Russia" (Velikaya Rossiya) became widely established.[31] By the 17th century, the form Rossiya replaced Rus' to describe the extent of the tsar's imperial authority in chiny, with Feodor III using the term "Great Russian Tsardom" (Velikorossisskoe tsarstvie) to denote an imperial and absolutist state, subordinating both Russian and non-Russian territories.[32] The old name Rus' was replaced in official documents, though the names Rus' and Russian land were still common and synonymous to it.[33]
The Russian state partly remained referred to as Moscovia (English:
According to prominent historians like
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Moscovia, Herberstein, 1549
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Russia, Mercator, 1595
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Russia seu Moscovia,Atlas Cosmographicae, 1596
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Russia vulgo Moscovia, Atlas Maior, 1645
History
Byzantine heritage
By the 16th century, the Russian ruler had emerged as a powerful, autocratic figure, a Tsar. By assuming that title, the sovereign of Moscow tried to emphasize that he was a major ruler or emperor (tsar (царь) represents the Slavic adaptation of the Roman Imperial title/name Caesar)[48] on a par with the Byzantine emperor. Indeed, after Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the late Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos, in 1472, the Moscow court adopted Byzantine terms, rituals, titles, and emblems such as the double-headed eagle, which survives in the coat of arms of Russia.
At first, the Byzantine term
Early reign of Ivan IV
The development of the Tsar's autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign of Ivan IV, and he gained the sobriquet "Grozny". The English word terrible is usually used to translate the Russian word grozny in Ivan's nickname, but this is a somewhat archaic translation. The Russian word grozny reflects the older English usage of terrible as in "inspiring fear or terror; dangerous; powerful; formidable". It does not convey the more modern connotations of English terrible, such as "defective" or "evil". Vladimir Dal defined grozny specifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars: "Courageous, magnificent, magisterial and keeping enemies in fear, but people in obedience".[49] Other translations have also been suggested by modern scholars.[50][51][52]
Ivan IV became
competed for control of the regency until Ivan assumed the throne in 1547. Reflecting Moscow's new imperial claims, Ivan's coronation as Tsar was a ritual modeled after those of the Byzantine emperors. With the continuing assistance of a group of boyars, Ivan began his reign with a series of useful reforms. In the 1550s, he declared a new law code, revamped the military, and reorganized local government. These reforms undoubtedly were intended to strengthen the state in the face of continuous warfare. The key documents prepared by the so-called Select Council of advisors and promulgated during this period are as follows:Foreign policies of Ivan IV
Further information about Russia was circulated by English and Dutch merchants. One of them, Richard Chancellor, sailed to the White Sea in 1553 and continued overland to Moscow. Upon his return to England, the Muscovy Company was formed by himself, Sebastian Cabot, Sir Hugh Willoughby, and several London merchants. Ivan IV used these merchants to exchange letters with Elizabeth I.
Despite the domestic turmoil of the 1530s and 1540s, Russia continued to wage wars and to expand. It grew from 2.8 to 5.4 million square kilometers from 1533 to 1584.[53] Ivan defeated and annexed the Khanate of Kazan on the middle Volga in 1552 and later the Astrakhan Khanate, where the Volga meets the Caspian Sea. These victories transformed Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state, which it continues to be today. The tsar now controlled the entire Volga River and gained access to Central Asia.
Expanding to the northwest toward the Baltic Sea proved to be much more difficult. In 1558, Ivan invaded Livonia, eventually involving himself in a twenty-five-year war against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and Denmark. Despite first successes, Ivan's army was pushed back, and the nation failed to secure a coveted position on the Baltic Sea.
Hoping to make profit from Russia's concentration on Livonian affairs, Devlet I Giray of Crimea, accompanied by as many as 120,000 horsemen, repeatedly devastated the Moscow region, until the Battle of Molodi put a stop to such northward incursions. But for decades to come, the southern borderland was annually pillaged by the Nogai Horde and the Crimean Khanate, who took local inhabitants with them as slaves. Tens of thousands of soldiers protected the Great Abatis Belt – a burden for a state whose social and economic development was stagnating.
Late reign of Ivan IV and oprichnina
During the late 1550s, Ivan developed a hostility toward his advisers, the government, and the boyars. Historians have not determined whether policy differences, personal animosities, or mental imbalance caused his wrath. In 1565, he divided Russia into two parts: his private domain (or oprichnina) and the public realm (or zemshchina). For his private domain, Ivan chose some of the most prosperous and important districts of Russia. In these areas, Ivan's agents attacked boyars, merchants, and even common people, summarily executing some and confiscating land and possessions. Thus began a decade of terror in Russia that culminated in the Massacre of Novgorod (1570).
As a result of the policies of the oprichnina, Ivan broke the economic and political power of the leading boyar families, thereby destroying precisely those persons who had built up Russia and were the most capable of administering it. Trade diminished, and peasants, faced with mounting taxes and threats of violence, began to leave Russia. Efforts to curtail the mobility of the peasants by tying them to their land brought Russia closer to legal serfdom. In 1572, Ivan finally abandoned the practices of the oprichnina.
According to a popular theory,[citation needed][by whom?] the oprichnina was started by Ivan in order to mobilize resources for the wars and to quell opposition. Regardless of the reason, Ivan's domestic and foreign policies had a devastating effect on Russia and led to a period of social struggle and civil war, the Time of Troubles (Smutnoye vremya, 1598–1613).
Time of Troubles
Ivan IV was succeeded by his son
In 1598, Feodor died without an heir, ending the
Subsequently, Russia entered a period of continuous chaos, known as The
The Time of Troubles included a civil war in which a struggle over the throne was complicated by the machinations of rival boyar factions, the intervention of regional powers Poland and Sweden, and intense popular discontent, led by Ivan Bolotnikov. False Dmitriy I and his Polish garrison were overthrown, and a boyar, Vasily Shuysky, was proclaimed tsar in 1606. In his attempt to retain the throne, Shuysky allied himself with the Swedes, unleashing the Ingrian War with Sweden. False Dmitry II, allied with the Poles, appeared under the walls of Moscow and set up a mock court in the village of Tushino.
In 1609,
Romanovs
The immediate task of the new dynasty was to restore order. However, Russia's major enemies, Poland and Sweden, were engaged in a conflict with each other, which provided Russia with the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in 1617. The
The early
After an unsuccessful attempt to regain Smolensk from Poland in 1632, Russia made peace with Poland in 1634. Polish king Władysław IV Vasa, whose father and predecessor was Sigismund III Vasa, had been elected by Russian boyars as tsar of Russia during the Time of Troubles, renounced all claims to the title as a condition of the peace treaty.
Legal code of 1649
The autocracy survived the Time of Troubles and the rule of weak or corrupt tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy. Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's legitimacy or the boyar faction controlling the throne. In the 17th century, the bureaucracy expanded dramatically. The number of government departments (prikazy; sing., prikaz ) increased from twenty-two in 1613 to eighty by mid-century. Although the departments often had overlapping and conflicting jurisdictions, the central government, through provincial governors, was able to control and regulate all social groups, as well as trade, manufacturing, and even the Eastern Orthodox Church.
The
The state fully sanctioned
Under this code, increased state taxes and regulations altered the social discontent that had been simmering since the Time of Troubles. In the 1650s and 1660s, the number of peasant escapes increased dramatically. A favourite refuge was the
Acquisition of the Wild Fields
The Tsardom of Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century. In the southwest, it claimed the Wild Fields (modern day Eastern Ukraine and South-Western Russia), which had been under Polish–Lithuanian rule and sought assistance from Russia to leave the rule of the Commonwealth.[citation needed] The Zaporozhian Cossacks, warriors organized in military formations, lived in the frontier areas bordering Poland, the Crimean Tatar lands. Although part of them was serving in the Polish army as Registered Cossacks, the Zaporozhian Cossacks remained fiercely independent and staged several rebellions against the Poles. In 1648, the peasants of what is now Eastern Ukraine joined the Cossacks in rebellion during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. Initially, Cossacks were allied with Crimean Tatars, which had helped them to throw off Polish rule. Once the Poles convinced the Tartars to switch sides, the Zaporozhian Cossacks needed military help to maintain their position.
In 1648, the
Raskol (Schism)
Russia's southwestern expansion, particularly its incorporation of the Wild Fields (modern day Eastern Ukraine), had
The Russian Orthodox patriarch,
The tsar's court also felt the impact of Little Russia and the West. Kiev was a major transmitter of new ideas and insight through the famed scholarly
Conquest of Siberia
Russia's eastward expansion encountered little resistance. In 1581, the Stroganov merchant family, interested in the fur trade, hired a Cossack leader, Yermak Timofeyevich, to lead an expedition into western Siberia. Yermak defeated the Khanate of Sibir and claimed the territories west of the Ob and Irtysh Rivers for Russia.
From such bases as
After a period of Sino-Russian border conflicts with the Qing dynasty, Russia made peace with China in 1689. By the Treaty of Nerchinsk, Russia ceded its claims to the Amur Valley, but it gained access to the region east of Lake Baikal and the trade route to Beijing. Peace with China strengthened the initial breakthrough to the Pacific that had been made in the middle of the century.
Peter the Great and the Russian Empire
Peter the Great (1672–1725), who became ruler in his own right in 1696, brought the Tsardom of Russia, which had little prior contact with Western Europe, into the mainstream of European culture and politics. After suppressing numerous rebellions with considerable bloodshed, Peter embarked on an incognito tour of Western Europe. He became impressed with what he saw and was awakened. Peter began requiring the nobility to wear Western European clothing and shave off their beards, an action that the boyars protested bitterly. Arranged marriages among the nobility were banned, and the Orthodox Church was brought under state control. Military academies were established to create a modern Western European-style army and officer corps.
These changes did not win Peter many friends, and in fact caused great political division in the country. These, along with his notorious cruelties (such as the
Organization
History of Russia |
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Russia portal |
- Bureaucratic titles
State flags
There was no single flag during the Tsardom. Instead, there were multiple flags:
- Standards used by the Tsar:[56]
- Standard of the Tsar of Russia (1693–1700): white-blue-red tricolor with golden double-headed eagle in the center.[56] Replaced by the Imperial standard in 1700 (see below).[56]
- Imperial Standard of the Tsar of Russia: black double-headed eagle carrying St. Vladimir Red Coat of Arms, on a golden rectangular field, adopted in 1700 instead of the older white-blue-red Standard of the Tsar of Moscow.[56]
- Civil flag: The early Romanov Tsars instituted the two-headed eagle Imperial Flag of the Tsar, which origin dates back to 1472, as a Civil Flag, it remained the Civil Flag of Russia until replaced during the Empire in 1858.[57]
- Peter I.[56]
- Naval ensign of the Imperial Russian Navy: white field with a blue saltire, adopted in 1712.[58] Before that, the naval ensign of Russia was white-blue-red tricolor.[58]
- Naval jackof the Imperial Russian Navy: red field with a blue saltire, adopted in 1700.
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Naval ensign of the Imperial Russian Navy (1699–1700),[58] a transitional variant between the 1697–1699 ensign and the Andreevsky Flag of 1712
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Naval jack of the Imperial Russian Navy (from 1700)[59]
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Naval ensign of the Imperial Russian Navy (from 1712)[58]
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Standard of the Tsar of Russia (1693–1700)
See also
- List of Russian monarchs
- Coronation of the Russian monarch
- Tsarist autocracy
- Demographic history of Russia#Tsardom of Russia
Notes
References
- ISBN 978-0199591770.
- ^ a b Population of Russia Archived 8 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Tacitus.nu (30 August 2008). Retrieved on 20 August 2013.
- ^ History of Russia Archived 25 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine. [Vol. 2, p. 10] Academia.edu (28 December 2010). Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ^ Population and Territory of Russia 1646–1917 Archived 24 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Warconflict.ru (2014). Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ISBN 5-211-02521-0
- ^ Костомаров Н. И. Русская история в жизнеописаниях ее главнейших деятелей. Olma Media Group, 2004 [1]
- ^ later changed to: Российское царство, Rossiyskoye tsarstvo), Зимин А. А., Хорошкевич А. Л. Россия времени Ивана Грозного. Москва, Наука, 1982
- ^ Перевезенцев, С. В. Смысл русской истории, Вече, 2004
- ISBN 978-1118455074.
- ISBN 978-1-4426-1021-7. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
- ^ Pipes, Richard. Russia under the old regime. p. 83.
- ^ Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 3
- ^ Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 13
- ^ E. Hellberg-Hirn. Soil and Soul: The Symbolic World of Russianness. Ashgate, 1998. p. 54
- ^ Lawrence N. Langer. Historical Dictionary of Medieval Russia. Scarecrow Press, 2001. p. 186
- ISBN 9780881410082.
- ^ Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 30–38
- ^ Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 55–56
- ^ Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 61
- ^ Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 57
- ^ Robert Auty, Dimitri Obolensky. Companion to Russian Studies: Volume 1: An Introduction to Russian History. Cambridge University Press, 1976. p. 99
- ^ "Чин венчания на царство Ивана IV Васильевича. Российский государственный архив древних актов. Ф. 135. Древлехранилище. Отд. IV. Рубр. I. № 1. Л. 1–46". Archived from the original on 23 January 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2016.
- ^ Lee Trepanier. Political Symbols in Russian History: Church, State, and the Quest for Order and Justice. Lexington Books, 2010. p. 61: "so your great Russian Tsardom, more pious than all previous kingdoms, is the Third Rome"
- Cambridge UniversityPress, 2004. p. 37. Note 34: "Since the first Rome fell through the Appollinarian heresy and the second Rome, which is Constantinople, is held by the infidel Turks, so then thy great Russian Tsardom, pious Tsar, which is more pious than previous kingdoms, is the third Rome"
- ^ Richard S. Wortman. Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy from Peter the Great to the Abdication of Nicholas II. Princeton University Press, 2013. p. 17
- ^ Maija Jansson. England and the North: The Russian Embassy of 1613–1614. American Philosophical Society, 1994. p. 82: "...the towns of our great Russian Tsardom", "all the people of all the towns of all the great Russian Tsardom".
- ^ Walter G. Moss. A History of Russia Volume 1: To 1917. Anthem Press, 2003. p. 207
- ^ Readings for Introduction to Russian civilization, Volume 1. Syllabus Division, University of Chicago Press, 1963. p. 253
- ^ Hans Georg Peyerle, George Edward Orchard. Journey to Moscow. LIT Verlag Münster, 1997. p. 47
- ^ William K. Medlin. Moscow and East Rome: A Political Study of the Relations of Church and State in Muscovite Russia. Delachaux et Niestl, 1952. p. 117: Addressing Patriarch Jeremiah, Tsar Feodor Ivanovich declares, "We have received the sceptre of the Great Tsardom of Russia to support and to watch over our pious and present Great Russian Tsardom and, with God's grace".
- ISBN 978-90-04-30401-7.
- ISBN 978-0-691-12374-5. Archivedfrom the original on 1 December 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
- ^ Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 4
- ^ Шмидт С. О. Памятники письменности в культуре познания истории России. М., 2007. Т. 1. Стр. 545
- ^ Felicity Stout. Exploring Russia in the Elizabethan commonwealth: The Muscovy Company and Giles Fletcher, the elder (1546–1611). Oxford University Press. 2015
- ^ Jennifer Speake (editor). Literature of Travel and Exploration: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. 2014. p. 650
- ^ Marshall Poe (editor). Early exploration of Russia. Volume 1. Routledge. 2003
- ^ John T. Shawcross. John Milton: The Self and the World. University Press of Kentucky, 2015. p. 120
- ^ Milton, John. A brief history of Moscovia and of other less-known countries lying eastward of Russia as far as Cathay, gather'd from the writings of several eye-witnesses. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
- ^ Кудрявцев, Олег Фёдорович. Россия в первой половине XVI в: взгляд из Европы. Русский мир, 1997. [2] Archived 13 August 2002 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Тихвинский, С. Л., Мясников, В. С. Восток – Россия – Запад: исторические и культурологические исследования. Памятники исторической мысли, 2001 – С. 69
- ^ Хорошкевич А. Л. Русское государство в системе международных отношений конца XV – начала XVI в. – М.: Наука, 1980. – С. 84
- ^ Sigismund von Herberstein. Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii. Synoptische Edition der lateinischen und der deutschen Fassung letzter Hand. Basel 1556 und Wien 1557. München, 2007. p. 29
- ^ Advertissement au Lecteur // Jacques Margeret. Estat de l'empire de Russie et grande duché de Moscovie, avec ce qui s'y est passé de plus mémorable et tragique... depuis l'an 1590 jusques en l'an 1606 en septembre, par le capitaine Margeret. M. Guillemot, 1607. Modern French-Russian edition: Маржерет Ж. Состояние Российской империи (Тексты, комментарии, статьи). Ж. Маржерет в документах и исследованиях. Серия: Studia historica М. Языки славянской культуры. 2007. С. 46, 117
- ^ Vernadsky V. Moscow Tsardom. in 2 v. Moscow: Agraph, 2001 Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine (Russian)
- Sigurd Schmidt, Doctor of history sciences, academician of RAN, Journal "Rodina", Nr. 12/2004 Archived 29 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ О великом и славном Российском Московском государстве. Гл. 50 // Арсеньев Ю. В. Описание Москвы и Московского государства: По неизданному списку Космографии конца XVII века. М, 1911. С. 6–17 (Зап. Моск. археол. ин-та. Т. 11)
- ^ Harper, Douglas. "tsar". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 13 June 2019.)
- Explanatory Dictionary of the Live Great Russian language, article ГРОЗИТЬ. Available in many editions as well as online, for example at slovardalja.net Archived 10 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- S2CID 146782336.
- from the original on 16 December 2023. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
- ISBN 0-19-502572-5; p. 78: "But Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible, or as the Russian has it, Ivan groznyi, "Ivan the Magnificent" or "Ivan the Great" is precisely a man who has become a legend"
- ^ Richard Pipes, Russia under the old regime, p. 80
- ISBN 5-17-010892-3.
- ^ "Peter I | Biography, Accomplishments, Reforms, Facts, Significance, & Death". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 11 October 2019. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f History of the Russian Flag Archived 31 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
- ^ Yenne, Bill. Flags of the World. Chartwell Books, 1993, pg32
- ^ a b c d e "vexillographia.ru". Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
- ^ "www.crwflags.com". Archived from the original on 24 February 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
Primary sources
- Grigory Kotoshikhin's Russia during the reign of Alexey Mikhailovich (1665) is the indispensable source for those studying administration of the Russian tsardom
- Domostroy is a 16th-century set of rules regulating everyday behaviour in the Russian boyar families.
Secondary sources
- This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division. – Russia
- Jarmo Kotilaine, Marshall Poe (ed.), Modernizing Muscovy: Reform and Social Change in Seventeenth Century Russia, Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-30751-1
External links
- Media related to Tsardom of Russia at Wikimedia Commons