William III of England
William III and II | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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James II & VII | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Successor | Anne | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Co-monarch | Mary II (1689–1694) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, and Overijssel | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Reign | 4 July 1672 – 8 March 1702 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Predecessor | First Stadtholderless Period | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Successor | Second Stadtholderless Period | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Prince of Orange | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Reign | 4 November 1650[b] – 8 March 1702 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Predecessor | William II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Successor | John William Friso (disputed[c]) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Born | 4 November 1650 [NS: 14 November 1650][b] Binnenhof, The Hague, Dutch Republic | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Died | 8 March 1702 (aged 51) [NS: 19 March 1702] Kensington Palace, Middlesex, England | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Burial | 12 April 1702 , England | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Spouse |
Mary II of England (m. 1677; died 1694) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
William III (William Henry; King of England, Ireland, and Scotland from 1689 until his death in 1702. As King of Scotland, he is known as William II.[2] He ruled Britain and Ireland alongside his wife, Queen Mary II , and their joint reign is known as that of William and Mary.
William was the only child of James, Duke of York, the younger brother and later successor of King Charles II .
A Catholic French ruler Louis XIV in coalition with both Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe. Many Protestants heralded William as a champion of their faith. In 1685, his Catholic uncle and father-in-law, James, became king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. James's reign was unpopular with the Protestant majority in Britain, who feared a revival of Catholicism. Supported by a group of influential British political and religious leaders, William invaded England in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. In 1688, he landed at the south-western English port of Brixham ; James was deposed shortly afterward.
William's reputation as a staunch Protestant enabled him and his wife to take power. During the early years of his reign, William was occupied abroad with the Hanoverians, in line to the throne after Anne with the Act of Settlement 1701. Upon his death in 1702, William was succeeded in Britain by Anne and as titular Prince of Orange by his cousin John William Friso .
Early lifeBirth and familyWilliam III was born in James II and VII .
Eight days before William was born, his father died of Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, over the name to be given to the infant. Mary wanted to name him Charles after her brother, but her mother-in-law insisted on giving him the name William (Willem) to bolster his prospects of becoming stadtholder.[5] William II had intended to appoint his wife as their son's guardian in his will; however, the document remained unsigned at William II's death and was therefore void.[6] On 13 August 1651, the Hoge Raad van Holland en Zeeland (Supreme Court) ruled that guardianship would be shared between his mother, his grandmother and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, husband of his paternal aunt Louise Henriette.[d]
Childhood and educationWilliam's mother showed little personal interest in her son, sometimes being absent for years, and had always deliberately kept herself apart from Dutch society. The ideal education for William was described in Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince d'Orange, a short treatise, perhaps by one of William's tutors, Divine Providence, fulfilling the historical destiny of the House of Orange-Nassau.[11] William was seen, despite his youth, as the leader of the "Orangist" party, heir to the stadholderships of several provinces and the office of Captain-General of the Union (see Politics and government of the Dutch Republic). He was viewed as the leader of the nation in its independence movement and its protector from foreign threats.[12] This was in the tradition of the princes of Orange before him: his great-grandfather William the Silent, his grand-uncle Maurice, his grandfather Frederick Henry, and his father William II.[13][14][15][16]
From early 1659, William spent seven years at the Frederick Henry of Orange ) was his paternal uncle.
his dynasty's supporters and the advocates of a more republican Netherlands.[23]
The Dutch authorities did their best at first to ignore these intrigues, but in the Second Anglo-Dutch War, one of Charles's peace conditions was the improvement of the position of his nephew.[22] As a countermeasure in 1666, when William was sixteen, the States officially made him a ward of the government, or a "Child of State".[22] All pro-English courtiers, including Zuylenstein, were removed from William's company.[22] William begged De Witt to allow Zuylenstein to stay, but he refused.[24] De Witt, the leading politician of the Republic, took William's education into his own hands, instructing him weekly in state matters and joining him for regular games of real tennis.[24] Early officesExclusion from stadtholdershipAfter the death of William's father, most provinces had left the office of stadtholder vacant. In 1667, as William III approached the age of 18, the Orangist party again attempted to bring him to power by securing for him the offices of stadtholder and States of Zeeland appointed him as First Noble.[29] To receive this honour, William had to escape the attention of his state tutors and travel secretly to Middelburg.[29] A month later, Amalia allowed William to manage his own household and declared him to be of majority age.[30]
The province of Holland, the centre of anti-Orangism, abolished the office of stadtholder, and four other provinces followed suit in March 1670, establishing the so-called "Harmony". Conflict with republicansIn November 1670, William obtained permission to travel to England to urge Charles to pay back at least a part of the 2,797,859 guilder debt the House of Stuart owed the House of Orange.[34] Charles was unable to pay, but William agreed to reduce the amount owed to 1,800,000 guilders.[34] Charles found his nephew to be a dedicated Calvinist and patriotic Dutchman and reconsidered his desire to show him the Secret Treaty of Dover with France, directed at destroying the Dutch Republic and installing William as "sovereign" of a Dutch rump state.[34] In addition to differing political outlooks, William found that his lifestyle differed from his uncles Charles and James, who were more concerned with drinking, gambling, and cavorting with mistresses.[35] The following year, the Republic's security deteriorated quickly as an Anglo-French attack became imminent.[36] In view of the threat, the States of Gelderland wanted William to be appointed Captain-General of the Dutch States Army as soon as possible, despite his youth and inexperience.[37] On 15 December 1671, the States of Utrecht made this their official policy.[38] On 19 January 1672, the States of Holland made a counterproposal: to appoint William for just a single campaign.[39] The prince refused this and on 25 February a compromise was reached: an appointment by the States General for one summer, followed by a permanent appointment on his 22nd birthday.[39] Meanwhile, William had written a secret letter to Charles in January 1672 asking his uncle to exploit the situation by exerting pressure on the States to appoint William stadtholder.[40] In return, William would ally the Republic with England and serve Charles's interests as much as his "honour and the loyalty due to this state" allowed.[40] Charles took no action on the proposal, and continued his war plans with his French ally. Becoming stadtholder"Disaster year" and Franco-Dutch WarFor the Dutch Republic, 1672 proved calamitous. It became known as the Rampjaar ("disaster year") because in the Franco-Dutch War and the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the Netherlands was invaded by France and its allies: England, Münster, and Cologne. Although the Anglo-French fleet was disabled by the Battle of Solebay, in June the French army quickly overran the provinces of Gelderland and Utrecht. On 14 June, William withdrew with the remnants of his field army into Holland, where the States had ordered the flooding of the Dutch Waterline on 8 June.[41] Louis XIV of France, believing the war was over, began negotiations to extract as large a sum of money from the Dutch as possible.[42] The presence of a large French army in the heart of the Republic caused a general panic, and the people turned against De Witt and his allies.[42] On 4 July, the States of Holland appointed William stadtholder, and he took the oath five days later.[43] The next day, a special envoy from Charles II, Lord Arlington, met William in Nieuwerbrug and presented a proposal from Charles. In return for William's capitulation to England and France, Charles would make William Sovereign Prince of Holland, instead of stadtholder (a mere civil servant).[44] When William refused, Arlington threatened that William would witness the end of the Republic's existence.[44] William answered famously: "There is one way to avoid this: to die defending it in the last ditch." On 7 July, the inundations were complete and the further advance of the French army was effectively blocked. On 16 July, Zeeland offered the stadtholdership to William.[43] Johan de Witt had been unable to function as Grand Pensionary after being wounded by an attempt on his life on 21 June. Though William's complicity in the lynching has never been proved (and some 19th-century Dutch historians have made an effort to disprove that he was an accessory), he thwarted attempts to prosecute the ringleaders, and even rewarded some, like Hendrik Verhoeff, with money, and others, like Johan van Banchem and Johan Kievit, with high offices.[48] This damaged his reputation in the same fashion as his later actions at Glencoe. William continued to fight against the invaders from England and France, allying himself with John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen and Hans Willem van Aylva in the north of the Dutch Republic finally forced the troops of Münster and Cologne to withdraw, while William crossed the Dutch Waterline and recaptured Naarden. In November, a 30,000-strong Dutch-Spanish army, under William's command, marched into the lands of the Bishops of Münster and Cologne. The Dutch troops took revenge and carried out many atrocities. Together with 35,000 Imperial troops, they then captured Bonn, an important magazine in the long logistical lines between France and the Dutch Republic. The French position in the Netherlands became untenable and Louis was forced to evacuate French troops. This deeply shocked Louis and he retreated to Saint Germain where no one, except a few intimates, were allowed to disturb him. The next year only Grave and Maastricht remained in French hands.[50]
Fagel now proposed to treat the liberated provinces of Utrecht, Gelderland and Political Treatise of 1677 of the need to organize the state so that the citizens maintain control over the sovereign was an influential expression of this unease with the concentration of power in one person.[54]
Meanwhile, the front of the war against France had shifted to the Spanish Netherlands. In 1674, Allied forces in the Netherlands were numerically superior to the French army under Condé, which was based along the Piéton river near Charleroi. William took the offensive and sought to bring on a battle by outflanking the French positions but the broken ground forced him to divide his army into three separate columns. At Seneffe, Condé led a cavalry attack against the Allied vanguard and by midday on 11 August had halted their advance. Against the advice of his subordinates, he then ordered a series of frontal assaults which led to very heavy casualties on both sides with no concrete result.[55] William and the Dutch blamed the Imperial commander, de Souches, and after a failed attempt to capture Oudenaarde, largely due to obstructionism from de Souches, he was relieved of command. Frustrated, William joined the army under Rabenhaupt with 10,000 troops instead of campaigning further in the Spanish Netherlands. He assumed command of operations at Grave, which had been besieged since 28 June. Grave surrendered on 27 October. The Dutch were split by internal disputes; the powerful Amsterdam mercantile body was anxious to end an expensive war once their commercial interests were secured, while William saw France as a long-term threat that had to be defeated. This conflict increased once ending the war became a distinct possibility when Grave was captured in October 1674, leaving only Maastricht.[56] On both sides, the last years of the war saw minimal return for their investment of men and money.[57] The French were preparing a major offensive, however, at the end of 1676. Intended to capture Valenciennes, Cambrai and Saint-Omer in the Spanish Netherlands. Louis believed this would deprive the Dutch regents of the courage to continue the war any longer. In this, however, he was mistaken. The impending French offensive actually led to an intensification of Dutch-Spanish cooperation. Still, the French offensive of 1677 was a success. The Spaniards found it difficult to raise enough troops due to financial constraints and the Allies were defeated in the Battle of Cassel. This meant that they could not prevent the cities from falling into French hands. The French then took a defensive posture, afraid that more success would force England to intervene on the side of the Allies.[58] The peace talks that began at Mary, Charles II of England's niece. An Anglo-Dutch defensive alliance followed in March 1678, although English troops did not arrive in significant numbers until late May. Louis seized this opportunity to improve his negotiating position and captured Ypres and Ghent in early March, before signing a peace treaty with the Dutch on 10 August.[59]
The Battle of Saint-Denis was fought three days later on 13 August, when a combined Dutch-Spanish force under William attacked the French army under Luxembourg. Luxembourg withdrew and William thus ensured Mons would remain in Spanish hands. On 19 August, Spain and France agreed an armistice, followed by a formal peace treaty on 17 September.[60] The war had seen the rebirth of the Dutch States Army as one of the most disciplined and best-trained European armed forces. This had not been enough to keep France from making conquests in the Spanish Netherlands, which William and the regents blamed mainly on the Spaniards; the Dutch expected the once powerful Spanish Empire to have more military strength.[61] MarriageDuring the war with France, William tried to improve his position by marrying, in 1677, his first cousin miscarried. After a further illness later in 1678, she never conceived again.[66]
Throughout William and Mary's marriage, William had only one reputed mistress, Elizabeth Villiers, in contrast to the many mistresses his uncles openly kept.[67]
Tensions with France, intrigue with EnglandBy 1678, Louis XIV sought peace with the Dutch Republic. After his marriage in November 1677, William became a strong candidate for the English throne should his father-in-law (and uncle) James be excluded because of his Catholicism. During the crisis concerning the Exclusion Bill in 1680, Charles at first invited William to come to England to bolster the king's position against the exclusionists, then withdrew his invitation—after which Lord Sunderland also tried unsuccessfully to bring William over, but now to put pressure on Charles.[71] Nevertheless, William secretly induced the States General to send Charles the "Insinuation", a plea beseeching the king to prevent any Catholics from succeeding him, without explicitly naming James.[72] After receiving indignant reactions from Charles and James, William denied any involvement.[72]
In 1685, when James II succeeded Charles, William at first attempted a conciliatory approach, at the same time trying not to offend the Protestants in England.[73] William, ever looking for ways to diminish the power of France, hoped that James would join the League of Augsburg, but by 1687 it became clear that James would not join the anti-French alliance.[73] Relations worsened between William and James thereafter.[74] In November, James's second wife, Mary of Modena, was announced to be pregnant.[75] That month, to gain the favour of English Protestants, William wrote an open letter to the English people in which he disapproved of James's pro-Roman Catholic policy of religious toleration. Seeing him as a friend, and often having maintained secret contacts with him for years, many English politicians began to urge an armed invasion of England.[76] Glorious RevolutionInvasion of EnglandWilliam at first opposed the prospect of invasion, but most historians now agree that he began to assemble an expeditionary force in April 1688, as it became increasingly clear that France would remain occupied by campaigns in Germany and Italy, and thus unable to mount an attack while William's troops would be occupied in Britain. On 30 June 1688—the same day the bishops were acquitted—a group of political figures, known afterward as the " Huguenot volunteers.[84] James's support began to dissolve almost immediately upon William's arrival; Protestant officers defected from the English army (the most notable of whom was Lord Churchill of Eyemouth, James's most able commander), and influential noblemen across the country declared their support for the invader.[85]
James at first attempted to resist William, but saw that his efforts would prove futile. Proclaimed kingWilliam summoned a Tory Lords proposed to acclaim her as sole ruler, William threatened to leave the country immediately. Furthermore, she, remaining loyal to her husband, refused.[93]
The Whig majority, quickly resolved that the throne was vacant, and that it was safer if the ruler were Protestant. There were more Tories in the House of Lords, which would not initially agree, but after William refused to be a regent or to agree to remain king only in his wife's lifetime, there were negotiations between the two houses and the Lords agreed by a narrow majority that the throne was vacant. On 13 February 1689, Parliament passed the Bill of Rights 1689, in which it deemed that James, by attempting to flee, had abdicated the government of the realm, thereby leaving the throne vacant.[94]
The Crown was not offered to James's infant son, who would have been the heir apparent under normal circumstances, but to William and Mary as joint sovereigns.[90] It was, however, provided that "the sole and full exercise of the regal power be only in and executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives".[90] William and Mary were crowned together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689 by the Bishop of London, Henry Compton.[95] Normally, the coronation is performed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, but the Archbishop at the time, William Sancroft, refused to recognise James's removal.[95] William also summoned a Convention of the Estates of Scotland, which met on 14 March 1689. He sent it a conciliatory letter, while James sent haughty uncompromising orders, swaying a majority in favour of William. On 11 April, the day of the English coronation, the Convention finally declared that James was no longer King of Scotland.[96] William and Mary were offered the Scottish Crown; they accepted on 11 May.[97] Revolution settlementWilliam encouraged the passage of the cruel and unusual punishments.[89] William was opposed to the imposition of such constraints, but he chose not to engage in a conflict with Parliament and agreed to abide by the statute.[99]
The Bill of Rights also settled the question of succession to the Crown. After the death of either William or Mary, the other would continue to reign. Next in the line of succession was Mary II's sister, Anne, and her issue, followed by any children William might have had by a subsequent marriage.[98] Roman Catholics, as well as those who married Catholics, were excluded.[98] Rule with Mary IIJacobite resistanceAlthough most in Britain accepted William and Mary as sovereigns, a significant minority refused to acknowledge their claim to the throne, instead believing in the divine right of kings, which held that the monarch's authority derived directly from God rather than being delegated to the monarch by Parliament. Over the next 57 years Jacobites pressed for restoration of James and his heirs. Nonjurors in England and Scotland, including over 400 clergy and several bishops of the Church of England and Scottish Episcopal Church as well as numerous laymen, refused to take oaths of allegiance to William. Ireland was controlled by Roman Catholics loyal to James, and Franco-Irish Jacobites arrived from France with French forces in March 1689 to join the landed in August. After progress stalled, William personally intervened to lead his armies to victory over James at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690,[f] after which James fled back to France.[101]
Upon William's return to England, his close friend Dutch General Godert de Ginkell, who had accompanied William to Ireland and had commanded a body of Dutch cavalry at the Battle of the Boyne, was named Commander in Chief of William's forces in Ireland and entrusted with further conduct of the war there. Ginkell took command in Ireland in the spring of 1691, and following the Battle of Aughrim, succeeded in capturing both Galway and Limerick, thereby effectively suppressing the Jacobite forces in Ireland within a few more months. After difficult negotiations a capitulation was signed on 3 October 1691—the Treaty of Limerick. Thus concluded the Williamite pacification of Ireland, and for his services, the Dutch general received the formal thanks of the House of Commons and was awarded the title of Earl of Athlone by the king.
A series of John Dalberg-Acton, "one became a colonel, another a knight, a third a peer, and a fourth an earl."[103]
William's reputation in Scotland suffered further damage when he refused English assistance to the Darien scheme, a Scottish colony (1698–1700) that failed disastrously.[105] Parliament and factionAlthough the Whigs were William's strongest supporters, he initially favoured a policy of balance between the Whigs and Tories.[106] The Marquess of Halifax, a man known for his ability to chart a moderate political course, gained William's confidence early in his reign.[107] The Whigs, a majority in Parliament, had expected to dominate the government, and were disappointed that William denied them this chance.[108] This "balanced" approach to governance did not last beyond 1690, as the conflicting factions made it impossible for the government to pursue effective policy, and William called for new elections early that year.[109] After the Royal Charter in 1694 to the Bank of England, a private institution owned by bankers, is his most relevant economic legacy.[113] It laid the financial foundation of the English takeover of the central role of the Dutch Republic and Bank of Amsterdam in global commerce in the 18th century.
William dissolved Parliament in 1695, and the new Parliament that assembled that year was led by the Whigs. The following year Parliament passed a colonial trade bill.[114][115] War in EuropeWilliam continued to absent himself from Britain for extended periods during his Nine Years' War (1688–1697) against France, leaving each spring and returning to England each autumn.[116] England joined the League of Augsburg, which then became known as the Grand Alliance.[117] Whilst William was away fighting, his wife, Mary II, governed the realm, but acted on his advice. Each time he returned to England, Mary gave up her power to him without reservation, an arrangement that lasted for the rest of Mary's life.[118] After the Anglo-Dutch fleet defeated a French fleet at La Hogue in 1692, the allies controlled the seas for the rest of the conflict, and the Treaty of Limerick (1691) pacified Ireland.[119] At the same time, the Grand Alliance fared poorly in Europe, as William lost Namur in the Spanish Netherlands in 1692.[120] A surprise attack on the French under the command of the Duke of Luxembourg at Steenkerke was repulsed and the French defeated the allies at the Battle of Landen in 1693. However, William managed to inflict such damage on the French in these battles that further major French offensives were ruled out.[121] The following year, the Allies possessed the numerical upper hand in the Low Countries. This enabled William to recapture Huy in 1694. A year later, the Allies achieved their grand success and recaptured Namur from the French. The fortress was considered one of the strongest fortresses in Europe and the conquest was a major blow to Louis XIV's reputation.[122]
Economic crisisWilliam's rule led to rapid inflation in England, which caused widespread hunger from 1693 onwards.[123] The Nine Years' War damaged English maritime trade and led to a doubling in taxation.[123] These factors coupled with government mismanagement caused a currency crisis 1695–1697 and a run on the recently created Bank of England.[123] Later yearsMary II died of smallpox on 28 December 1694, aged only 32, leaving William III to rule alone.[124] William deeply mourned his wife's death.[125] Despite his conversion to Anglicanism, William's popularity in England plummeted during his reign as a sole monarch.[126] Rumours of homosexualityDuring the 1690s, rumours grew of William's alleged homosexual inclinations and led to the publication of many satirical pamphlets by his Jacobite detractors. Whatever the case, Bentinck's closeness to William did arouse jealousies at the royal court. William's young protégé, Keppel, aroused more gossip and suspicion, being 20 years William's junior, strikingly handsome, and having risen from the post of a royal page to an earldom with some ease.[130] Portland wrote to William in 1697 that "the kindness which your Majesty has for a young man, and the way in which you seem to authorise his liberties ... make the world say things I am ashamed to hear."[131] This, he said, was "tarnishing a reputation which has never before been subject to such accusations". William tersely dismissed these suggestions, however, saying, "It seems to me very extraordinary that it should be impossible to have esteem and regard for a young man without it being criminal."[131] Peace with FranceIn 1696, the Dutch territory of Treaty of Rijswijk (20 September 1697), which ended the Nine Years' War, King Louis XIV recognised William III as King of England, and undertook to give no further assistance to James II.[134] Thus deprived of French dynastic backing after 1697, Jacobites posed no further serious threats during William's reign.
As his life drew towards its conclusion, William, like many other contemporary European rulers, felt concern over the question of succession to the throne of Spain, which brought with it vast territories in Italy, the Joseph Ferdinand, Electoral Prince of Bavaria, would obtain Spain, while France and the Holy Roman Emperor would divide the remaining territories between them.[135] Charles II accepted the nomination of Joseph Ferdinand as his heir, and war appeared to be averted.[136]
When, however, Joseph Ferdinand died of smallpox in February 1699, the issue re-opened. In 1700, William and Louis agreed to the Philip, Duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV. The French conveniently ignored the Second Partition Treaty and claimed the entire Spanish inheritance.[138] Furthermore, Louis alienated William III by recognising James Francis Edward Stuart, the son of the former King James II (who died in September 1701), as de jure King of England.[139] The subsequent conflict, known as the War of the Spanish Succession , broke out in July 1701 and continued until 1713/1714.
English royal successionAnother royal inheritance, apart from that of Spain, also concerned William. His marriage with Mary had not produced any children, and he did not seem likely to remarry. Mary's sister, Anne, had borne numerous children, all of whom died during childhood. The death of her last surviving child ( Sophia, Electress of Hanover (a granddaughter of James I), and to her Protestant heirs.[141] The Act debarred Roman Catholics from the throne, thereby excluding the candidacy of several dozen people more closely related to Mary and Anne than Sophia. The Act extended to England and Ireland, but not to Scotland, whose Estates had not been consulted before the selection of Sophia.[141]
DeathIn 1702, William died of broken collarbone following a fall from his horse, Sorrel. It was rumoured that the horse had been confiscated from Sir John Fenwick, one of the Jacobites who had conspired against William.[142] Because his horse had stumbled into a mole's burrow, many Jacobites toasted "the little gentleman in the black velvet waistcoat".[143] Years later, Winston Churchill, in his A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, stated that the fall "opened the door to a troop of lurking foes".[144] William was buried in Westminster Abbey alongside his wife.[145] His sister-in-law and cousin, Anne, became queen regnant of England, Scotland and Ireland.
William's death meant that he would remain the only member of the Dutch House of Orange to reign over England. Members of this House had served as stadtholder of Holland and the majority of the other provinces of the Dutch Republic since the time of Treaty of Utrecht (1713), Frederick I's successor, Frederick William I of Prussia, ceded his territorial claim to Louis XIV, keeping only a claim to the title. Friso's posthumous son, William IV, succeeded to the title at his birth in 1711; in the Treaty of Partition (1732), William IV agreed to share the title "Prince of Orange" with Frederick William.[148]
Legacy
William's primary achievement was to contain France when it was in a position to impose its will across much of Europe. His life's aim was largely to oppose Louis XIV of France. This effort continued after his death during the War of the Spanish Succession. Another important consequence of William's reign in England involved the ending of a bitter conflict between Crown and Parliament that had lasted since the accession of the first English monarch of the House of Stuart, James I, in 1603. The conflict over royal and parliamentary power had led to the Triennial Act 1694 and the Act of Settlement 1701.[151]
The historical verdict on William's qualities as an army commander is mixed. Many contemporaries agreed that he was a great field commander. Even his enemies spoke highly of him. The Marquis de Quincy, for example, wrote that it was due to William's insight and personal courage that the Allies held out at the Battle of Seneffe, while he also praises how William led his troops to safety during the battles of Steenkerque and Landen. Still, William has been blamed by French and British historians for his impatience and recklessness, and for treating lightly his life and the lives of his soldiers. British historian John Childs acknowledges William's great qualities, but feels that he fell short as a field commander because, by often throwing himself into the fray, he no longer had the complete oversight. William commanded several field battles; Battle of Seneffe (1674), Battle of Cassel (1677), Battle of Saint-Denis (1678), Battle of the Boyne (1690), Battle of Steenkerque (1692) and the Battle of Landen. While most of these were defeats, it would be wrong to place the responsibility solely on him. He was up against a strong uniformly organised army with a coalition army. Many of the coalition troops were not as practised and disciplined as the Dutch troops, and it took time to incorporate them into the Dutch system. William did not attach much value to traditional victory signs either. He considered himself a winner if he managed to inflate French losses to the point where French offensive plans had to be abandoned. The battles he fought were almost all ones of attrition. That the Allies also suffered many casualties he took for granted. The Dutch army organisation was prepared for that; and, from 1689, so was England's.[152] William endowed the College of William and Mary (in present-day Williamsburg, Virginia) in 1693.[153] Nassau County, New York, a county on Long Island, is a namesake.[154] Long Island itself was also known as Nassau during early Dutch rule.[154] Though many alumni of Princeton University think that the town of Princeton, New Jersey (and hence the university), were named in his honour, this is probably untrue, although Nassau Hall, the college's first building, is named for him.[155] New York City was briefly renamed New Orange for him in 1673 after the Dutch recaptured the city, which had been renamed New York by the British in 1665. His name was applied to the fort and administrative centre for the city on two separate occasions reflecting his different sovereign status—first as Fort Willem Hendrick in 1673, and then as Fort William in 1691 when the English evicted Colonists who had seized the fort and city.[156] Nassau, the capital of The Bahamas, is named after Fort Nassau, which was renamed in 1695 in his honour.[157] The Dutch East India Company built a military fort in Cape Town, South Africa, in the 17th century, naming it the Castle of Good Hope. The five bastions were named after William III's titles: Orange, Nassau, Catzenellenbogen, Buuren and Leerdam.[158]
Titles, styles, and armsTitles and styles
By 1674, William was fully styled as "Willem III, Defenders of the Faith, etc."[162]
ArmsAs Prince of Orange, William's coat of arms was: Châlons); II and III Or a bugle horn Azure, stringed Gules Orange) with an inescutcheon, Nine pieces Or and Azure (Geneva); between the III and IV quarters, an inescutcheon, Gules a fess counter embattled Argent (Buren).[163]
The coat of arms used by the king and queen was: Quarterly, I and IV Grand quarterly, Azure three for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); over all an escutcheon Azure billetty a lion rampant Or.[164]
Ancestry
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See also
- Anglo-Dutch Wars
- British monarchs' family tree
- Constantijn Huygens Jr. – secretary to William III
- Abel Tassin d'Alonne – illegitimate elder half-brother of William III and his secretary after the death of Huygens
Notes
- ^ William was declared King by the Parliament of England on 13 February 1689 and by the Parliament of Scotland on 11 April 1689.
- ^ a b c d e During William's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the Old Style Julian calendar in Britain and parts of Northern and Eastern Europe, and the New Style Gregorian calendar elsewhere, including William's birthplace in the Netherlands. At the time of William's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates: thus William was born on 14 November 1650 by Gregorian reckoning, but on 4 November 1650 by Julian reckoning. At William's death, Gregorian dates were eleven days ahead of Julian dates. He died on 19 March 1702 by the Gregorian calendar, and on 8 March 1702 by the standard Julian calendar. (However, the English New Year fell on 25 March, so by English reckoning of the time, William died on 8 March 1701.) Unless otherwise noted, dates in this article follow the Julian calendar with New Year falling on 1 January.
- Princess Henriëtte Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau, was a younger daughter of Frederick Henry.) The dispute was eventually settled in 1732 with the Treaty of Partition[1] cf. First Stadtholderless Period.
- ^ Frederick William was chosen because he could act as a neutral party mediating between the two women, but also because as a possible heir he was interested in protecting the Orange family fortune, which Amalia feared Mary would squander. Troost, pp. 26–27.
- ^ In the province of Friesland that office was filled by William's uncle-by-marriage William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz.
- ^ Due to the change to the Gregorian calendar, William's victory is commemorated annually by Northern Irish and Scottish Protestants on The Twelfth of July – cf. Troost, pp. 278–280
References
Citations
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- ^ "Act of Union 1707, the Revolution in Scotland". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2008.
- ^ Claydon, p. 9
- ^ Claydon, p. 14
- ^ Troost, p. 26; van der Zee, pp. 6–7
- ^ Troost, p. 26
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 5–6; Troost, p. 27
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 34–37
- ^ Rosalind K. Marshall, 'Mackenzie, Anna, countess of Balcarres and countess of Argyll (c. 1621–1707)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Oct 2006 accessed 29 Nov 2014
- ^ Troost, 27. The author may also have been Johan van den Kerckhoven. Ibid.
- ^ Troost, pp. 36–37
- ^ Rowen, Herbert H. (1978). John de Witt, grand pensionary of Holland, 1625-1672. Princeton University Press. pp. 781–797.
- ISBN 0-394-51075-5.
- ISBN 0-19-873072-1.
- ^ Geyl, Pieter (2002). Orange and Stuart 1641-1672. Arnold Pomerans (trans.) (reprint ed.). Phoenix. p. 65.
- ^ Blok, Petrus Johannes (1970). History of the People of the Netherlands. Vol. 4. Oscar A. Bierstadt (trans.) (1st ed.). AMS Press. p. 300.
- ^ Troost, pp. 37–40
- ^ a b Troost, p. 43
- ^ Catharina Hooft at Vrouwen van Soestdijk
- ^ Troost, pp. 43–44
- ^ Troost, p. 44
- ^ a b c d Troost, p. 49
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 12–17
- ^ a b Van der Kiste, pp. 14–15
- ^ Troost, pp. 29–30
- ^ a b Troost, p. 41
- ^ a b c d Troost, pp. 52–53
- ^ opgang van Mens en Wetenschap, by Hubert Luns, p 90 (2018); Jephta Dullaart: Triumph of Peace; Andries de Graeff, voorbeeld van culturele elite? Tweede opdrach, by Pieter Vis
- ^ a b Van der Kiste, pp. 16–17
- ^ Troost, p. 57
- ^ Troost, pp. 53–54
- ^ Troost, p. 59
- ^ Troost, p. 60
- ^ a b c Troost, pp. 62–64
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 18–20
- ^ Troost, p. 64
- ^ Troost, p. 65
- ^ Troost, p. 66
- ^ a b Troost, p. 67
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 65–66
- ^ Troost, p. 74
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 78–83
- ^ a b Troost, p. 76
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 80–81
- ^ Troost, p. 75
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 85–86
- ^ Troost, pp. 89–90
- , in De Gids (1867), pp. 201–218
- ^ Troost, p. 122
- ^ Panhuysen 2009, pp. 391–398.
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 106–110
- ^ Troost, p. 109
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 109–112
- ^ Bartholomew Begley, "Spinoza, Before and After the Rampjaar", European Legacy 27.6 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10848770.2022.2083912
- ^ Lynn 1999, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Jacques 2007, p. 408.
- ^ Nolan 2008, pp. 126–128.
- ^ Van Nimwegen 2020, pp. 157–161.
- ^ Lesaffer, Randall. "The Wars of Louis XIV in Treaties (Part V): The Peace of Nijmegen (1678–1679)". Oxford Public International Law. Retrieved 30 December 2018.
- ^ Van Nimwegen 2020, p. 166.
- ^ Van Nimwegen 2020, pp. 166–167.
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 38–39
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 42–43
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 44–46
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 47
- ^ Chapman, pp. 86–93
- ^ Van der Zee, pp. 202–206
- ^ Troost, pp. 141–145
- ^ Troost, pp. 153–156
- ^ Troost, pp. 156–163
- ^ Troost, pp. 150–151
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 152–153
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 173–175
- ^ Troost, pp. 180–183
- ^ Troost, p. 189
- ^ Troost, p. 186
- required.) (Subscription required)
- ^ a b Troost, p. 191
- ^ Troost, p. 191; van der Kiste, pp. 91–92
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 91
- ^ Troost, pp. 193–196
- ^ Troost, pp. 200–203; van der Kiste, pp. 102–103
- ^ Rodger, p. 137
- ^ Van Nimwegen, 183–186
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 204–205
- ^ a b c Troost, pp. 205–207
- ^ Baxter, pp. 242–246; Miller, p. 208
- ISBN 0-5213-9075-3.
- ^ a b c Davies, pp. 614–615
- ^ a b c Troost, pp. 207–210
- ^ Davies, p. 469; Israel, p. 136
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 107–108
- ^ Troost, p. 209
- ^ Troost, pp. 210–212
- ^ a b c Troost, pp. 219–220
- ^ Troost, pp. 266–268
- William.
- ^ a b c Van der Kiste, pp. 114–115
- ^ Troost, pp. 212–214
- ^ "The Siege of Derry (1688–1689)". Retrieved 10 November 2009.
- ^ "The Battle of the Boyne (1689–1690)". Retrieved 10 November 2009.
- ^ Troost, pp. 270–273
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 274–275
- ^ "BBC – History – Scottish History – Restoration and Revolution (II)". The Making of the Union. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
- ^ "BBC – History – British History in depth: The Jacobite Cause". Retrieved 9 November 2009.
- ^ Troost, pp. 220–223
- ^ Troost, p. 221
- ^ Van der Zee, pp. 296–297
- ^ Troost, p. 222; van der Zee, pp. 301–302
- ^ Troost, pp. 223–227
- ^ Troost, p. 226
- ^ Troost, pp. 228–232
- ^ Claydon, pp. 129–131
- ^ "Treasury Calendar: October 1696, 16-31." Calendar of Treasury Books, Volume 11, 1696-1697. Ed. William A Shaw. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1933. 290-301. British History Online website Retrieved 3 August 2023.
- ^ Andrew A. Hanham. "BLATHWAYT, William (1649-1717), of Little Wallingford House, Great Street, Westminster and Dyrham Park, Glos.". published in The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1690-1715, ed. D. Hayton, E. Cruickshanks, S. Handley, London: Boydell and Brewer. 2002. History of Parliament website Retrieved 3 Aug 2023.
- ^ Troost, pp. 239–241; van der Zee, pp. 368–369
- ^ Troost, pp. 241–246
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 150–158
- ^ Troost, pp. 281–283
- ^ Troost, pp. 244–246
- ^ Van Nimwegen 2020, p. 95 & 236.
- ^ Van Nimwegen 2020, p. 239 & 250.
- ^ S2CID 254000548.
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 179–180
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 180–184
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 186–192; Troost, pp. 226–237
- ^ Black, J, ed. (1997), Culture and Society in Britain, Manchester, p. 97
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link). - ^ Troost, pp. 25–26; Van der Zee, pp. 421–423
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 204–205; Baxter, p. 352; Falkner, James (2004), "Keppel, Arnold Joost van, first earl of Albemarle (1669/70–1718)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 201
- ^ a b Van der Kiste, pp. 202–203
- ^ Van der Zee, pp. 402–403
- ^ Van der Zee, p. 414
- ^ Troost, p. 251
- ^ Troost, pp. 253–255
- ^ Troost, p. 255
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 256–257
- ^ a b Troost, pp. 258–260
- ^ Troost, p. 260
- ^ Troost, p. 234
- ^ a b Troost, p. 235
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 251–254
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 255
- ^ Churchill, pp. 30–31
- ^ "William III". Westminster Abbey Official site. Archived from the original on 6 January 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2008.
- ^ Israel, pp. 959–960
- ^ Israel, pp. 962, 968
- ^ Israel, pp. 991–992; "Text of the Treaty of Partition" (in French). Heraldica. Retrieved 8 August 2008.
- ^ Collot d'Escury 1825, p. 306.
- ^ "Statue of King William III". Dublin City Council. 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
- ^ a b Claydon, pp. 3–4
- ^ Van Nimwegen 2020, p. 36-39 & 95.
- ^ "Historical Chronology, pp. 1618–1699". College of William and Mary. Archived from the original on 15 July 2008. Retrieved 30 July 2008.
- ^ a b "History of Nassau County". Nassau County website. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
- ^ Norris, Edwin Mark (1917). The Story of Princeton. Little, Brown. pp. 5–6.
- ^ "The Dutch Under English Rule" The History of North America by Guy Carleton Lee Francis and Francis Newton Thorpe. Published 1904 by G. Barrie & Sons, p. 167
- ISBN 0-8203-2122-2.
- ^ "The Castle of Good Hope, oldest surviving colonial building in South Africa, is completed". South African History Online. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
- ^ Troost, p. 5
- ^ S. and J. Sprint (1703). The life of William III. Late King of England, and Prince of Orange. Google eBoek (scanned version). p. 28. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
- ^ Troost, p. 77
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- ^ Maclagan and Louda, pp. 27, 73
- ^ Harry Gerber (1953), "Amalie, Prinzessin von Oranien", Neue Deutsche Biographie (in German), vol. 1, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 238–239; (full text online)
Bibliography
- OCLC 473975225.
- Chapman, Hester W. (1953). Mary II: Queen of England. OCLC 753145632.
- ISBN 0-3043-6393-6. Age of Revolution is the third volume of four, published 1957.
- Claydon, Tony (2002). William III: Profiles in Power. Longman. ISBN 0-5824-0523-8.
- Collot d'Escury, Hendrik (1825). Hollands roem in kunsten en wetenschappen. Met register: Volume 2 (in Dutch). Van Cleef.
- ISBN 0-1951-3442-7.
- ISBN 0-1982-0734-4.
- Jacques, Tony (2007). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty-first Century, Volume 2, F–O. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-3133-3538-9.
- Lesaffer, Randall. "The Wars of Louis XIV in Treaties (Part V): The Peace of Nijmegen (1678–1679)". Oxford Public International Law. Retrieved 30 December 2018.
- Lynn, John (1999). The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714 (Modern Wars in Perspective). Longman. ISBN 978-0-5820-5629-9.
- Mijers, Esther; Onnekink, David, eds. (2007). Redefining William III. The Impact of the King-Stadholder in International Context. Ashgate. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015.
- Miller, John (1991). James II: A Study in Kingship. Methuen. ISBN 0-4136-5290-4.
- Nolan, Cathal (2008). Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-3133-3046-9.
- Ogg, David (1957). England in the Reigns of James II and William III (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Panhuysen, Luc (2009). Rampjaar 1672: Hoe de Republiek aan de ondergang ontsnapte. Uitgeverij Atlas. ISBN 978-9-0450-1328-2.
- Pull, William (2021). William III: From Prince of Orange to King of England.
- OCLC 401229115.
- Rodger, N.A.M. (2004). The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815. Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-3930-6050-8.
- Troost, Wout (2005). William III, The Stadholder-king: A Political Biography. Translated by J. C. Grayson. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-5071-5.
- ISBN 0-7509-3048-9.
- Van der Zee, Henri; Van der Zee, Barbara (1973). William and Mary. Knopf. ISBN 0-3944-8092-9.
- Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2020). De Veertigjarige Oorlog 1672–1712: de strijd van de Nederlanders tegen de Zonnekoning [The 40 Years War 1672–1712: the Dutch struggle against the Sun King] (in Dutch). Prometheus. ISBN 978-9-0446-3871-4.
- Waller, Maureen (2006). Sovereign Ladies: Sex, Sacrifice, and Power. The Six Reigning Queens of England. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-3123-3801-5.
External links
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 662–664. .
- William II & III and Mary II at the official website of the British monarchy
- William III at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust
- BBC – History
- N. Japikse, ed., Correspondentie van Willem III en van Hans Willem Bentinck, eersten graaf van Portland
- "Archival material relating to William III of England". UK National Archives.
- Portraits of King William III at the National Portrait Gallery, London