Decriminalization of homosexuality
Decriminalization of homosexuality is the repeal of laws criminalizing same-sex acts between multiple men or multiple women. It has taken place in most of the world, except Africa and the Muslim world.
History
During the
The decriminalization of homosexuality was spread across Europe by
Soviet Union
The Soviet government of the
The legalisation of homosexuality was confirmed in the RSFSR Penal Code of 1922, and following its redrafting in 1926. According to Dan Healey, archival material that became widely available following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 "demonstrates a principled intent to decriminalize the act between consenting adults, expressed from the earliest efforts to write a socialist criminal code in 1918 to the eventual adoption of legislation in 1922."[16]
The Bolsheviks also rescinded Tsarist legal bans on homosexual civil and political rights, especially in the area of state employment. In 1918, Georgy Chicherin, a homosexual man who kept his homosexuality hidden, was appointed as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR. In 1923, Chicherin was also appointed People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR, a position he held until 1930.[17]
In the early 1920s, the Soviet government and scientific community took a great deal of interest in sexual research, sexual emancipation and homosexual emancipation. In January 1923, the Soviet Union sent delegates from the Commissariat of Health led by Commissar of Health Semashko
The legalisation of private, adult and consensual homosexual relations only applied to the
Despite decriminalising homosexuality in 1917 wider Soviet social policy on the matter of wider homosexual rights and the treatment of homosexual people in the 1920s was often mixed. The Soviet courts still tried to repress sexual variation even when homosexuality was not a crime.[23] In the late 1920s, Soviet government towards homosexuality and homosexual rights underwent a change, and reversed its earlier openness to same-sex sexuality by implementing laws criminalizing male homosexuality in 1934.[24]
Post-World War II decriminalization trend
By 1958, Interpol had noticed a trend towards the partial decriminalization of homosexuality with a higher age of consent than for heterosexual relationships. This model was recommended by various international organizations. Convergence occurred both through the partial decriminalization of homosexuality (as in the United Kingdom, and many other countries) or through the partial criminalization of homosexuality (such as in Belgium, where the law increased the age of consent from 16 to 18 for same-sex sexual activity came into effect in 1965).[25] Overall, there was a wave of decriminalization in the late twentieth century. Ninety percent of changes to these laws between 1945 and 2005 involved liberalization or abolition.[26] One explanation for these legal changes is increased regard for human rights and autonomy of the individual[27] and the effects of the 1960s sexual revolution.[28] The trend in increased attention to individual rights in laws around sexuality has been observed around the world, but progresses more slowly in some regions, such as the Middle East.[29]
Eighty percent of repeals between 1972 and 2002 were done by the legislature and the remainder by the laws being ruled
Studies have found that modernization, as measured by the
In 1981, the
Resistance to decriminalization
Africa is the only continent where decriminalization of homosexuality has not been widespread since the mid-twentieth century.
The
Following decolonization, several former British colonies expanded laws that had only targeted men in order to include same-sex behavior by women.
Adherence to Islam is also a major predictor of maintaining laws criminalizing homosexuality and the death penalty for it.
References
- ^ Sibalis 1996, pp. 81, 83.
- ^ Asal & Sommer 2016, p. 61.
- ^ Sibalis 1996, pp. 81, 96.
- ^ Asal & Sommer 2016, p. 55.
- ^ Asal & Sommer 2016, pp. 19, 55.
- ^ Whisnant 2016, p. 19.
- ^ Asal & Sommer 2016, p. 19.
- ^ Asal & Sommer 2016, pp. 19, 56.
- ^ Mignot 2022.
- ^ Asal & Sommer 2016, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Asal & Sommer 2016, p. 16.
- ^ a b c Tolino 2020, Criminalization of Same-Sex Relations: An Overview.
- ^ Ozsoy 2021, p. 1.
- ^ Ozsoy 2021, pp. 19–20.
- ^ a b c [Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime. E.H. Carr. 1994]
- ^ [Dan Healey, Homosexual Desire in Revolutionary Russia, 2001]
- ^ "Vol. 30, No. 2, Apr., 1971 of The Russian Review on JSTOR". www.jstor.org. Retrieved 2021-04-28.
- ^ a b c [Homosexual Desire in Revolutionary Russia. Healey. 132–133, 309]
- ^ [Die Sexualrevolution in Russland, Berlin: 1925 Grigorri Batkis]
- ^ ["Sexual Relations and the Class Struggle", Alexandra Kollontai, Selected Writings of Alexandra Kollontai, trans. Alix Holt (London: Allison & Busby, 1977), 241.]
- S2CID 42687288.
- S2CID 143578469.
- ^ Engelstein, Laura (1995). "Soviet policy toward male homosexuality: its origins and historical roots". Journal of Homosexuality. 29 (2–3): 155–178.
- ^ Dawsey, Jason. "A Double Defeat: Catastrophe for Gay Emancipation in Germany and the USSR". National WWII Museum.
- ^ Dupont 2019, Franco-Danish, but made in Holland, Conclusion.
- ^ Kane 2015, p. 277.
- ^ a b Kane 2015, p. 280.
- ^ Hildebrandt 2014, pp. 239, 241.
- ^ Karimi & Bayatrizi 2019, pp. 424–425.
- ^ Kane 2015, p. 279.
- ^ Hildebrandt 2014, p. 242.
- ^ Hildebrandt 2014, p. 239.
- ^ Hildebrandt 2014, p. 230.
- ^ Asal & Sommer 2016, pp. 24, 26.
- ^ Wirtz et al. 2013, p. S22.
- ^ Rich et al. 2020, State Policies.
- ^ Han & O'Mahoney 2018, p. 2.
- ^ a b Rich et al. 2020, What Gets Represented.
- ^ Han & O'Mahoney 2018, pp. 43, 95.
- ^ Hildebrandt et al. 2019, p. 2.
- ^ Asal & Sommer 2016, pp. 85, 89.
- ^ Kane 2015, pp. 283–284.
- ^ Anabtawi 2022, p. 388.
- ^ Han & O'Mahoney 2018, p. 41.
- ^ Torra 1998, p. 75.
- ^ Hildebrandt 2014, p. 244.
- ^ Torra 1998, pp. 78–80.
- ^ Alexander 2018, The MVD's Objections to Decriminalization.
- ^ Han & O'Mahoney 2018, pp. 90–91.
- ^ Mignot 2022, p. 121.
- ^ a b Kaoma 2018, p. 124.
- ^ a b Asal & Sommer 2016, p. 13.
- ^ a b Gloppen & Rakner 2020, pp. 200–201.
- ^ Gloppen & Rakner 2020, p. 200.
- ^ Kaoma 2018, p. 21.
- ^ Karimi & Bayatrizi 2019, p. 429.
- ^ Seckinelgin 2018, p. 3.
- ^ Kaoma 2018, pp. 125–126, 144.
- ^ Gloppen & Rakner 2020, p. 209.
- ^ Gloppen & Rakner 2020, p. 201.
- ^ Nordling 2015, pp. 135–136.
- ^ Human Dignity Trust 2016, p. 10.
- ^ Gloppen & Rakner 2020, pp. 195, 198–199.
- ^ Hildebrandt 2014, pp. 245–246.
- ^ Gloppen & Rakner 2020, pp. 199–200.
- ^ Awondo 2016.
- ^ Gloppen & Rakner 2020, p. 196.
- ^ Han & O'Mahoney 2018, pp. 70–71.
- ^ "5 Countries in Africa That Have Legalized Same-Sex Relationships in the Past 10 Years". Global Citizen. Retrieved 30 January 2022.
- ^ Arimoro 2021, p. 379.
- ^ Asal & Sommer 2016, pp. 11–12.
- ^ Kane 2015, pp. 281–282.
- ^ Asal & Sommer 2016, p. 87.
Sources
- Alexander, Rustam (2018). "Soviet Legal and Criminological Debates on the Decriminalization of Homosexuality (1965–75)". Slavic Review. 77 (1): 30–52. ISSN 0037-6779.
- Anabtawi, Samer (2022). "Snatching Legal Victory: LGBTQ Rights Activism and Contestation in the Arab World". Arab Law Quarterly. 36 (4–5): 383–421. ISSN 1573-0255.
- Asal, Victor; Sommer, Udi (2016). Legal Path Dependence and the Long Arm of the Religious State: Sodomy Provisions and Gay Rights across Nations and over Time. ISBN 978-1-4384-6325-4.
- Arimoro, Augustine Edobor (2021). "Interrogating the Criminalisation of Same-Sex Sexual Activity: A Study of Commonwealth Africa". Liverpool Law Review. 42 (3): 379–399. ISSN 1572-8625.
- Awondo, Patrick (2016). "Religious Leadership and the Re-Politicisation of Gender and Sexuality in Cameroon". Journal of Theology for Southern Africa.
- Dupont, Wannes (2019). "Pas de deux, out of step: Diverging chronologies of homosexuality's (de)criminalisation in the Low Countries". Tijdschrift voor Genderstudies. 22 (4): 321–338. .
- Gloppen, Siri; Rakner, Lise (2020). "LGBT rights in Africa". Research Handbook on Gender, Sexuality and the Law. ISBN 9781788111157.
- Han, Enze; O'Mahoney, Joseph (2018). British Colonialism and the Criminalization of Homosexuality: Queens, Crime and Empire. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-25618-6.
- Hildebrandt, Achim (2014). "Routes to decriminalization: A comparative analysis of the legalization of same-sex sexual acts". Sexualities. 17 (1–2): 230–253. .
- Hildebrandt, Achim; Trüdinger, Eva-Maria; Wyss, Dominik (2019). "The Missing Link? Modernization, Tolerance, and Legislation on Homosexuality". Political Research Quarterly. 72 (3): 539–553. .
- Human Dignity Trust (May 2016). "Breaking the Silence: Criminalisation of Lesbians and Bisexual Women and its Impacts" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-06-03. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
- Kane, Melinda D. (2015). "Decriminalizing Homosexuality: Gaining Rights through Sodomy Law Reform". The Ashgate Research Companion to Lesbian and Gay Activism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-61314-7.
- ISBN 978-3-319-66341-8.
- Karimi, Ahmad; Bayatrizi, Zohreh (2019). "Dangerous positions: Male homosexuality in the new penal code of Iran". Punishment & Society. 21 (4): 417–434. .
- Mignot, Jean-François (2022). "Decriminalizing homosexuality: A global overview since the 18th century". Annales de démographie historique (143): 115–133. ISSN 0066-2062.
- Nordling, Linda (2015). "African academics challenge homophobic laws". Nature. 522 (7555): 135–136. S2CID 4470101.
- Ozsoy, Elif Ceylan (2021). "Decolonizing Decriminalization Analyses: Did the Ottomans Decriminalize Homosexuality in 1858?". Journal of Homosexuality. 68 (12): 1979–2002. PMID 32069182.
- Rich, Timothy; Dahmer, Andi; Eliassen, Isabel (2020). "Historical Views of Homosexuality: Asia". The Oxford Encyclopedia of LGBT Politics and Policy. Oxford University Press.
- Seckinelgin, Hakan (2018). "Same-sex lives between the language of international LGBT rights, international aid, and anti-homosexuality" (PDF). Global Social Policy. 18 (3): 284–303. .
- Sibalis, Michael David (1996). "The Regulation of Male Homosexuality in Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, 1789–1815". Homosexuality in Modern France. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509303-2.
- Tobin, Robert Deam (2015). Peripheral Desires: The German Discovery of Sex. ISBN 978-0-8122-4742-8.
- Tolino, Serena (2020). "LGBTQI Rights in the Middle East and North Africa". The Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of the Middle East. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-008748-7.
- Torra, Michael Jose (1998). "Gay Rights After the Iron Curtain". The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs. 22 (2): 73–88. JSTOR 45289040.
- ISBN 978-1-939594-10-5.
- Wirtz, Andrea L.; Kirey, Anna; Peryskina, Alena; PMID 23906993.
Further reading
- Takács, Judit (2021). "Legalizing queerness in Central-Eastern Europe". The Routledge Handbook of Gender in Central-Eastern Europe and Eurasia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-34776-2.
- Novak, Andrew (2020). "Litigation and the Decriminalization of Homosexuality". Transnational Human Rights Litigation: Challenging the Death Penalty and Criminalization of Homosexuality in the Commonwealth. Springer International Publishing. pp. 115–170. ISBN 978-3-030-28546-3.