Gwageo
Gwageo | |
Korean name | |
---|---|
Hangul | 과거 |
Hanja | 科擧 |
Revised Romanization | gwageo |
McCune–Reischauer | kwagŏ |
The gwageo (Korean: 과거) or kwagŏ were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo (918–1392) and Joseon (1392–1897) periods of Korea. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' ability of writing composition and knowledge of the Chinese classics. The form of writing varied from literature to proposals on management of the state. Technical subjects were also tested to appoint experts on medicine, interpretation, accounting, law etc. These were the primary route for most people to achieve positions in the bureaucracy.
Based on the
Silla
The first national examinations were administered in the kingdom of
Goryeo
Under the Goryeo dynasty, the national examinations became more systematic and powerful than they had been under Silla. However, they remained only one among several avenues to power. A man who had reached a position of the fifth rank or higher could automatically have one son placed in a position of rank.[3]
The examination system was spread to Goryeo in 957 by a visiting Hanlin scholar named Shuang Ji from Later Zhou. Gwangjong was highly pleased with Shuang Ji and requested that he remain at the Korean court permanently.[4]
The examinations were established in 958, during the reign of Gwangjong as a means of breaking the hold which a few powerful families held over the government.
The major examinations were literary, and came in two forms: a composition test (jesul eop), and a test of classical knowledge (myeonggyeong eop). These tests were officially to be held every three years, but in practice it was common for them to be held at other times as well.[8] The composition test came to be viewed as more prestigious, and its successful applicants were divided into three grades. On the other hand, successful candidates on the classical examination were not ranked. In the course of the dynasty, some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics examination.[6]
The classics examination was revised in 1344, under the reign of
Military examinations were established briefly under the reign of Yejong, and again in the reign of Gongyang just before the dynasty's fall; however, for most of the dynasty, there was no military examination and thus no educational path to military rank. This may have reflected the relative strength of the military elites during this period.[citation needed]
Miscellaneous examinations (jabeop) were administered in various fields. One among these was Buddhism; monks who passed received a special clerical title, beginning with daeseon, or "monk designate."[10]
Joseon
Under the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), the examinations fell under three broad categories: the literary examinations (文科; mun-gwa), military examinations (武科; mugwa), and miscellaneous examinations (雜科; japgwa) covering topics such as medicine, geography, astronomy, and translation. As other roads to advancement were much more closed than during the Goryeo period, the gwageo became virtually the only pathway to a position of rank.[12]
In theory, anyone other than nobi could take gwageo examinations, but in reality only yangban who had the luxury of spending much of their childhood and early adulthood studying could hope to pass the exam. In the case of literary administration, children of remarried women, concubines, and officials who were dismissed for corruption were excluded from taking the exam. Gwageo examinations were very important not only for an individual but for his family because a yangban family that did not produce a government official for four generations lost their status as yangban.
When writing the examination, candidates had to record the names and positions of their four great-grandfathers. The higher literary examination was restricted to those who either were already in a position of rank, or who had already passed the lower examination. The miscellaneous examinations were looked down upon by the yangban, and were generally restricted to the
The gwageo provided a basis for various forms of
Administration
The gwageo were originally administered every three years; these regular examinations were known as the singnyeonsi (식년시). However, the singnyeonsi became less important over time, and an increasing percentage of candidates took the gwageo on special occasions. These included the alseongsi (visitation examinations), which were administered when the king visited the Shrine of Confucius at the
The literary and military examinations were administered in three stages: an initial qualifying test (chosi) administered in the provinces, a second examination (hoesi) conducted in the capital (in which the qualifying candidates were selected), and a third examination (jeonsi) in the presence of the king, in which the successful candidates were ranked in order. Each stage was
Testing procedures were a frequent flashpoint of controversy, with various factions vying for control of the examination criteria. In particular, the question of whether the first phase of the higher examination should be oral or written became a hot topic of debate in early Joseon.
Literary examinations
The literary examination was divided into a lower and higher examination. In turn, in the lower literary examination some candidates applied for a "classics licentiate" (or saengwon) and others for a "literary licentiate" (or jinsa). After passing these lower examinations (saengjin-gwa), they could proceed to the higher examination. This lower examination may have originated in the entrance examinations for the Gukjagam of Goryeo.[16]
In the lower examination, the literary licentiate tested compositional skill in various forms of Chinese poetry and prose, including
The higher literary examination was administered every three years, and a total of 33 successful candidates were selected from a pool of 240. These 240, in turn, were sent from the Seonggyungwan (50), the capital (40), and the
Over the course of the Joseon Dynasty, a total of 14,620 men passed the literary examination. The triennial singneonsi passed roughly 41% of these; the remainder passed in the course of irregular examinations.[19] This proportion shifted over time; as the dynasty progressed, the irregular examinations became increasingly important.[14] This may in part have been because the number of candidates in triennial examinations was fixed, while the number in the irregular examinations was not fixed.
Military examinations (mugwa)
The military examination selected 190 candidates in the first stage, of whom 28 were allowed to pass the second stage.[20][notes 3] Of these, 70 came from the capital and the remainder from the various provinces, with Gyeongsang contributing 30, Chungcheong and Jeolla contributing 25, and the remaining provinces 10 candidates each.[20]
The military examinations tested a mixture of military and literary skills and knowledge. The first stage of the test was a practical test of various military skills, focused on
Miscellaneous examinations
The miscellaneous examinations, or japgwa, were divided into four parts: translation, medicine, natural science (astrology, geography, and others), and recordkeeping. These examinations were overseen by the government office which employed specialists in the field. They were closely connected to the Sahak royal technical academies, which were overseen by the same offices.
In the case of translation, the languages tested were the four in which the Joseon court maintained interpreters: contemporary Chinese, Mongolian, Jurchen/Manchu, and Japanese. This examination was overseen by the Bureau of Interpreters, which maintained interpreters in the capital and in the major border-ports and cities. At the first level, 45 candidates were accepted in spoken Chinese and 4 in each of the other languages; the second level selected 13 successful applicants in Chinese and 2 in each of the other languages.[22]
The medical examination selected 18 finalists, narrowed to 9 successful applicants in the second round. These were then given positions in the Bureau of Medicine, which sent some of them to the palace and others to each provincial division down to the
Those who passed the japgwa were originally given a crimson certificate, the same color obtained by those who passed the literary examination. However, pressure from the yangban eventually changed this color to white, signifying a lower level of achievement and entitling the bearer to a position of lower rank. Those who passed this examination became known as
Historical change
The gwageo were supplemented in the reign of Jungjong of Joseon (1506–1544), at the suggestion of the high official Jo Gwang-jo. The supplementary examination was called an "examination for the learned and the virtuous" (hyeollanggwa). This was an abbreviated examination, held in the presence of the king. The candidates had to be recommended by their local magistrate as men of the highest integrity.[25]
The gwageo system became increasingly corrupt in the later years of the Joseon Dynasty. Scholars who were unable to pass the examination began to form a class of disaffected yangban; notable among these was early 19th-century rebel leader
scholars also turned away from state service.The gwageo were finally abolished in the
See also
- Imperial examination
- Education in the Joseon Dynasty
- History of education
- Republic of Korea public service examinations
Notes
References
- ^ SNUERI 1997, p. 108.
- ^ 정, 중환 (1995). "시무십여조(時務十餘條): 남북국시대 통일신라학자 최치원이 진성여왕에게 올린 정책서". Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Retrieved 2022-08-27.
- ^ SNUERI 1997, pp. 63–64.
- ^ Liu 2007, pp. 498–499.
- ^ Lee 1984, pp. 104–105.
- ^ a b Lee 1984, p. 118.
- ^ Lee 1984, p. 129.
- ^ SNUERI 1997, p. 63.
- ^ SNUERI 1997, p. 62.
- ^ Lee 1984, p. 133.
- ^ "함흥에서의 과거시험" [Gwageo Exams at Hamhung]. National Museum of Korea (in Korean). Retrieved 2023-08-15.
- ^ Byeon 1999, pp. 277–278.
- ^ Lee 1984, p. 219.
- ^ a b Lee 1984, p. 181.
- ^ Byeon 1999, p. 278.
- ^ SNUERI 1997, p. 109.
- ^ Lee 1984, p. 180.
- ^ a b SNUERI 1997, p. 107.
- ^ SNUERI 1997, p. 112.
- ^ a b SNUERI 1997, p. 110.
- ^ SNUERI 1997, pp. 110–111.
- ^ SNUERI 1997, p. 111.
- ^ SNUERI 1997, p. 104.
- ^ "심상기의 과거 답안지" [Shim Sang-gi's Gwageo Answer Sheet]. National Museum of Korea. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
- ^ Lee 1984, p. 205.
- ^ Lee 1984, p. 254.
- ^ Lee 1984, p. 291.
Sources
- 변태섭 (Byeon Tae-seop) (1999). 韓國史通論 [Outline of Korean History] (in Korean) (20th printing, 4th ed.). Seoul: 三英社 (Samyeongsa). ISBN 9788944591013.
- Lee, Ki-baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Translated by Wagner, Edward W. Seoul: 一潮閣 (Ilchokak Publishers). ISBN 9788933702048.
- Liu, Haifeng (2007). "Influence of China's imperial examinations on Japan, Korea and Vietnam". Frontiers of History in China. 2 (4). .
- SNUERI (Seoul National University Educational Research Institute), ed. (1997). 한국교육사 [Educational History of Korea] (in Korean). Seoul: 교육과학사 (Kyoyook Book Publishing Co.). ISBN 89-8287-130-6.