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{{excerpt|Water conflict|paragraphs=1|file=no}}
{{excerpt|Water conflict|paragraphs=1|file=no}}


== Fresh water ==
[[File:Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa (2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa]]
[[File:Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa (2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa]]
{{Main|Fresh water|Water resources}}

Water, in absolute terms, is not in short supply planet-wide. But, according to the United Nations water organization, [[UN-Water]], the total usable freshwater supply for ecosystems and humans is only about 200,000&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> of water – less than one percent (<1%) of all freshwater resources. Usable fresh water includes water not contaminated or degraded by water-altering chemicals, such as sewage or any other harmful chemicals from continuous previous use.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Viessman Jr.|first1=Warren|title=Population and Water Resources|url=http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Po-Re/Population-and-Water-Resources.html|website=Water Encyclopedia Science and Issues|publisher=Advameg, Inc.|access-date=6 December 2016}}</ref>

The [[Earth]] has a limited though renewable [[water supply|supply of fresh water]], stored in [[aquifer]]s, [[surface water]]s, ice caps and the [[atmosphere]]. [[Ocean]]s are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert [[saline water]] to [[potable water]] is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from [[desalination]].<ref>{{cite book|title=World Energy Outlook 2005: Middle East and North Africa Insights|publisher=International Energy Agency, Paris|year=2005}}</ref> However, modern technologies, such as the [[Seawater Greenhouse]], use [[solar energy]] to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.


== Threats ==
== Threats ==

Revision as of 12:15, 11 April 2022

Global view of local exposure to water-related risks. Aggregated measure of quantitative, qualitative, regulatory and market based risks to local availability of adequate water supply, as well as risk of flooding.

Water security has been defined as "the reliable availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods and production, coupled with an acceptable level of water-related risks".[1] It is realized to the degree that water scarcity is non-existent, or has been decreased or eliminated, and to the degree that floods and contamination of freshwater supplies are non-threatening. Water security is considered to be a necessity of sustainable development for its importance in the quality of life of the people in a region. Water security is therefore also linked to social justice and equitable distribution of environmental benefits and harms [2] Sustainable development would result in lowered poverty and increased living standards for those most susceptible to the impacts of insecure water resources in the region, especially women and children.

The areas of the world that are most likely to experience water insecurity are places with low

hydraulic fracturing for energy resources.[4] In regions experiencing water security issues, changes in the local and global environment may soon lead to more intense regulation of water. [5][6]

Definitions and scale

Water security is achieved when there is sufficient quantity and quality of water for human and the natural environment.[3] United Nations Water considers both quantity and quality factors of accessible water when describing water security. Whilst most areas of the world are at risk of experiencing some form of water insecurity, some regions are more vulnerable than others. [7] According to the Pacific Institute "While regional impacts will vary, global climate change will potentially alter agricultural productivity, freshwater availability and quality, access to vital minerals, coastal and island flooding, and more. Among the consequences of these impacts will be challenges to political relationships, realignment of energy markets and regional economies, and threats to security".[8]

According to

water infrastructure required to mitigate if not reverse water insecurity threats. Good management of water resources can jointly manage biodiversity protection and human water security. Preserving flood plains rather than constructing flood-control reservoirs is a cost-effective way to control floods while protecting the biodiversity of wildlife that occupies such areas.[11]

The term water security encompasses ideas and concepts regarding

pipelines between sources and users, water licences with different security levels and war
.

Urban water security can also understood from a systems perspective, given its complexity and cross-disciplinary nature. This involves understanding the types of pressures on the water system (such as climate change and urbanization), the state of the water system (water stocks and flows), the impact of the water system on water services provision (such as affordability and availability), and responses (including institutional reforms).[13]

More recently sustained empirical research has challenged the many ways in which water security is quantified, noting the multiplicity of measures[14] and the various scales at which they apply.[15] Subsequently there has been considerable progress in developing and rolling out meaningful ways of assessing water insecurity, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Improved metrics, and especially metrics linked directly to the experience of water insecurity are also allowing development specialists to more appropriately assess the efficacy of development programmes.

Related concepts

Water risk

"Water risk" refers to the "possibility of an entity experiencing a water-related challenge (e.g., water scarcity, water stress, flooding, infrastructure decay, drought)".[16]: 4  Water risk is inversely related to water security, meaning that as water risk increases, water security decreases. Water risk is complex and multidimensional. It includes risks from natural disasters such as flooding and drought, which can lead to infrastructure failure and worsen hunger.[17] When these risks are realized, they result in water scarcity or other problems. The potential economic effects of water risk are significant. Entire industries, such as the food and beverage, agriculture, oil and gas, utilities, semiconductor and industries, are threatened by water risk. Agriculture uses 69% of global freshwater, making the industry extremely vulnerable to water stress.[18]

The financial sector is becoming more aware of the potential impacts of water risk and the need for its proper management. By 2025, $145 trillion in assets under management are expected to be exposed to water risk.[19]

To help mitigate water risk, companies can develop water risk management plans.

World Wildlife Fund has a Water Risk Filter that helps companies assess and respond to water risk with scenarios for 2030 and 2050.[21] The World Wildlife Fund has also partnered with DWS, which provides additional business solutions to water risk including water-centric investment funds.[22]

Water conflict

This section is an excerpt from Water conflict.[edit]
Water conflict typically refers to violence or disputes associated with access to, or control of, water resources, or the use of water or water systems as weapons or casualties of conflicts. The term water war is colloquially used in media for some disputes over water, and often is more limited to describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups over the rights to access water resources.[23][24] The United Nations recognizes that water disputes result from opposing interests of water users, public or private.[25] A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though they are rarely traditional wars waged over water alone.[26] Instead, water has long been a source of tension and one of the causes for conflicts. Water conflicts arise for several reasons, including territorial disputes, a fight for resources, and strategic advantage.[27]
Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa

Threats

Drought conditions at California's Lake Oroville.

Water scarcity

The most common threat to water security is

South-North Water Transfer Project in the 2010s are good examples. Governments also, especially during the 1990s and 2000s, sought to alleviate urban water insecurity through privatisation of water services.[30]
Usually these strategies exacerbate water insecurity for significantly proportions of local populations and as a consequence are now largely discredited. Governance and social equity-led approaches are increasingly preferred.

An example of periodic deep water scarcity induced water insecurity include the ongoing California drought that started in early 2000s and the Cape Town Water Crisis. In both cases pre-existing vulnerabilities were exacerbated by persistent climatic drought. In California, lack of water has impacts communities throughout the state, particularly those with significant Latino populations, in a number of ways. First, lack of immediately available water affects household quality of life and ability to produce livelihoods, particularly from agriculture in the Central Valley. Second, water scarcity-related hazards such as wildfire and floods also disproportionately affect poorer households and communities.

This section is an excerpt from Water scarcity.[edit]
Water scarcity (closely related to water stress or water crisis) is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.[31]: 560  Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands. This includes water needed for ecosystems to function. Regions with a desert climate often face physical water scarcity.[32] Central Asia, West Asia, and North Africa are examples of arid areas. Economic water scarcity results from a lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw water from rivers, aquifers, or other water sources. It also results from weak human capacity to meet water demand.[31]: 560  Many people in Sub-Saharan Africa are living with economic water scarcity.[33]: 11 

Water pollution

A broad category of threats to water security is environmental threats. These include contaminants such as

Flint, Michigan
in 2014.

Natural disasters and accidents

Natural disasters such as

hurricanes, earthquakes, and wildfires can damage man-made structures such as dams and fill waterways with debris. Another thread to water security includes radiation due to a nuclear accident.[34]

Terrorism

Other threats to water security include terrorism.[34]

Country examples

Australia

This section is an excerpt from Water security in Australia.[edit]
Water security in Australia became a major concern in
environmental flows, competition between competing interests such as grazing, irrigation and urban water supplies, and competition between upstream and downstream users. For example, there is competition for the resources of the Darling River system between Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia.[35] Water reform was first placed on the national agenda at the 1994 Council of Australian Governments (COAG) meeting when a strategic framework was devised.[36]
As the knowledge of surface and groundwater systems grew and the awareness of the significance of sustainable water markets increased, further water reform was agreed to at the 2004 COAG meeting, under a national blueprint known as the National Water Initiative (NWI).

China

Main article: Water resources of China § Water security
Yufeng Reservoir drought conditions, 2015.

China’s per capita water usage is just over a quarter of the global average.[37] The World Resources Institute lists many of the more populated areas of the country as experiencing high (40% - 80% of renewable ground water extracted yearly) or extremely high (>80%) water stress. The WRI has also evaluated a similar portion of the country in the range of 3 to 5 on their overall water risk index, a measurement accounting for a variety of qualitative and quantitative evaluations.[38] Issues relating to water quality and quantity are likely primary limiting factors in China’s sustainable economic and infrastructural development.[39]

China introduces five year plans every fifth year pertaining to various issues facing the country. They are a guiding initiative that do not necessarily pertain to legal enforcement, but rather economic and social guidance and planning.[40] In 2016, the Thirteenth Five-Year Plan was introduced along with the goal of limiting annual water consumption per year to 670 billion cubic meters. These guidelines played an important role in China showing a reduction in water consumption for the first time in over a decade in 2014.[41]

A number of laws have been passed in the last two decades that aimed to reduce water usage, waste, and pollution as well as increase disaster preparedness. The Water Law (amended 2002) was first passed in 1988, this amendment provided sections relating to water allocation right, extraction rights, use and conservation parameters, pollution prevention, and basin management. This law could be seen as a turning point in the early 2000s for water security recognition.[42] Many have come to criticize China for its failure to introduce effective water resource management practices earlier than their mid-2010s onset. For nearly a decade the regulations set forth in the Water Laws regulation were not effectively enforced, so although there were effective measures drafted, the issues continued to develop.[42]

United States

This section is an excerpt from Water supply and sanitation in the United States § Water security.[edit]
Water security is projected to be a problem in the future since future population growth will most likely occur in areas that are currently water stressed.[43] Ensuring that the United States remains water secure will require policies that will ensure fair distribution of existing water sources, protecting water sources from becoming depleted, maintaining good wastewater disposal, and maintaining existing water infrastructure.[44][45] Currently there are no national limits for US groundwater or surface water withdrawal. If limits are imposed, the people most impacted will be the largest water withdrawers from a water source.

See also

References

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  2. ISBN 9780367650193.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
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  3. ^ a b A.A., Tindall, J.A., Campbell. "USGS Fact Sheet 2010-3106: Water Security—National and Global Issues". pubs.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2017-05-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  7. ^ "What is Water Security? Infographic". UN-Water. n.d. Retrieved 2021-02-11.
  8. ^ http://www.pacinst.org/topics/global_change/climate_security/index.htm Archived September 5, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  9. ^ Report: Water and Violence Link: http://strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/63948150123-web.pdf
  10. ^ Jumana Khamis (22 March 2015). "Refugees exacerbate water crisis in Middle East".
  11. ^ Balancing water supply and wildlife
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  16. ^ The CEO Water Mandate (2014) Driving Harmonization of Water-Related Terminology, Discussion Paper September 2014. Alliance for Water Stewardship, Ceres, CDP (formerly the Carbon Disclosure Project), The Nature Conservancy, Pacific Institute, Water Footprint Network, World Resources Institute, and WWF
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  18. ^ a b "The Water Crisis and Industries at Risk". Morgan Stanley. Retrieved 2020-04-06.
  19. ^ Carr, Acacia (3 December 2018). "Water Risk: Single Largest Risk Threatening People, Planet and Profit | GreenMoney Journal". Retrieved 2020-04-06.
  20. ^ "Climate change is devastating the world's water supplies. Why aren't we talking about it?". Climate & Capital Media. 2021-01-14. Retrieved 2021-01-15.
  21. ^ "New Water Risk Filter Scenarios will help companies and investors turn risk into resilience".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  22. ^ "Water risk gathers steam with moves from DWS, WWF and Thomas Schumann Capital". Responsible Investor. Retrieved 2021-02-23.
  23. ^ Tulloch, James (August 26, 2009). "Water Conflicts: Fight or Flight?". Allianz. Archived from the original on 2008-08-29. Retrieved 14 January 2010.
  24. ^ Kameri-Mbote, Patricia (January 2007). "Water, Conflict, and Cooperation: Lessons from the nile river Basin" (PDF). Navigating Peace (4). Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-07-06.
  25. ^ United Nations Potential Conflict to Cooperation Potential, accessed November 21, 2008
  26. International Security
     Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 79-112 (Summer 1993).
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    ); Conflict Barometer 2007:Crises – Wars – Coups d'État – Nagotiations – Mediations – Peace Settlements, 16th annual conflict analysis, 2007
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  30. ^ Arnold, Craig Anthony (March 22, 2009). "Water privatization trends in the United States: human rights, national security, and public stewardship". William and Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review. 33: 785.
  31. ^ a b Caretta, M.A., A. Mukherji, M. Arfanuzzaman, R.A. Betts, A. Gelfan, Y. Hirabayashi, T.K. Lissner, J. Liu, E. Lopez Gunn, R. Morgan, S. Mwanga, and S. Supratid, 2022: Chapter 4: Water. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 551–712, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.006.
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  33. ^ IWMI (2007) Water for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. London: Earthscan, and Colombo: International Water Management Institute.
  34. ^ a b "Water and Wastewater Systems Sector | Homeland Security". www.dhs.gov. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
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  38. ^ "Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas". Aquaduct. World Resources Institute. Retrieved 2021-02-28.
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  40. ^ Cheng, Evelyn (2020). "China's top leaders meet this week to plan for the next five years. Here's what to expect". CNBC. Retrieved 2021-02-28.
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External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_security&oldid=1082115791"