Stéphane Courtois
This article may have too many section headers. (April 2021) |
Stéphane Courtois | |
---|---|
Catholic Institute of Higher Studies | |
Known for | Research on communism and communist genocides |
Awards | Doctor honoris causa from the Free University of Moldova |
Notes | |
Director of the journal Communisme , member of the Scientific Council of the Foundation for Political Innovation (2009–2011) |
Stéphane Courtois (born 25 November 1947) is a French historian and university professor, a director of research at the
Courtois is a
As a student, from 1968 to 1971, Courtois was a
Maoist activism (1968–1971)
Courtois was an activist in the Maoist Marxist–Leninist organization Vive communism from 1968 to 1971, which changed its name in 1969 to Vive la Revolution with Roland Castro. At this time he directed the organisation's bookstore at rue Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire in Paris. He describes himself as having been "anarcho-Maoist," but many "repented" of the extreme left and later became supporters of democracy and multi-party democracy and often anti-communists.[7]
Communist Party at war and Communisme journal
Having taken legal studies and history, he became known in 1980 with the publication of his thesis, the PCF at war under the direction of Annie Kriegel. It was with her that he founded in 1982 the journal Communisme to bring together anticommunist specialists on French communism. After the death of Kriegel, he became the main organiser of the magazine. He was appointed director of research at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), where he was responsible for the "Group observations and studies of democracy" (GEODE). That period at Communisme was seen as an extremely rich period for research of all kinds, the crucible of important work published in the 1980s.[8]
Courtois served as the historical consultant on the controversial 1985 documentary
Visits to archives of the Comintern in Moscow (1992–1994)
Following the fall of the
The opening represented an opportunity for him to access unpublished sources to rewrite the history of the Comintern and of the Communist parties afflicted to it. Until that time, what was known of the Comintern was only what the Soviet leadership wished to be known, countered only by unverifiable assertions of their opponents. Courtois described the historiographical turning point as a "true revolution in documentation".[13][14]
For example, a historical study of the PCF had been made for decades not on genuine archival documents but on the basis of stories, such as memoirs published by PCF members, including Jacques Duclos, because the original PCF records were kept not at party headquarters in Paris, but in Moscow, in accordance with the central clauses governing their admission to the Comintern (conditions of admission to the Third International).
In 2006, Courtois wrote a book entitled Communism in France: The revolution in documentation and revised historiography.
He made his first visit to the archives of the Comintern in Moscow in September 1992. Later he made three more visits, the last in December 1994. In 2009, at a conference, Stéphane Courtois said: "I did not go to promote The Black Book of Communism in Russia.... In any case, I do not go back again for quite some time.... I quickly became aware that I was under constant surveillance in the archives".[15]
Courtois gleaned some spectacular information from the archives and in deliberately provoking controversy, which led in the eyes of some at the Communisme journal to a divisive position with the complementary scientific researches there. Since 1993, a large part of the editorial board of Communisme left the journal.[8]
Orientation of works after publication of The Black Book
If the historiographic production of Courtois before 1995 mainly concerned the PCF, afterward, it focused more on the Comintern and the history of communist regimes in Eastern Europe. In the Black Book, he was concerned with the criminal aspects of the actions of the Comintern. In his book on Eugen Fried, which he cowrote with Annie Kriegel in 1997, the emphasis was more on the control by the Comintern on the national communist parties and the mass anti-fascist organizations such as Amsterdam-Pleyel, Secours Rouge, and the Universal Gathering for peace. In the foreword of Eugen Fried, he indicated that the project initiated in 1984–1985 had to be suspended in 1991 when the archives of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union were transferred to the State Archives of the Republic of Russia. "In 1992, Annie Kriegel and Stéphane Courtois were there in Moscow. They made several trips to the Russian capital and brought back thousands of pages on microfilm...."[16]
In a communication to the
After the publication of Eugen Fried, Courtois led many joint editorial projects, such as A clean sweep From the past! History and Memory of Communism in Europe (2002), which came at the end of the Black Book of Communism and provided additions to the book, mostly written by foreign authors, and the Dictionary of Communism (2007). In 2008, he contributed to the Black Book of the French Revolution, in a chapter devoted to the relationship between
In 2009, he returned again to the question of communism with the book Communism and totalitarianism, which was a collection of a series of his articles on the subject.
He has also expanded his work to include all totalitarian regimes. He organises many international conferences on this theme and maintains a collection of the Éditions du Seuil and the Éditions du Rocher.
Major works
Methodological influences
Alumnus of Kriegel, Courtois said that his book Communism and Totalitarianism (2009) is built on the model of several books by her, including The Bread and the Roses: foundations for a history of socialism (1968) and French communism in the mirror (1974).[13] The methodology, developed by her and adopted by him, consisted of an accumulation of stages of thought of the researcher in the form of texts that are grouped by topic and published regularly.[13]
Taking up the concept of a "history workshop "developed by the historian François Furet, in his eponymous book published in 1982, Stéphane Courtois said that "the serious historian is an artisan who constantly works on the job, because he is dependent on sources, archives, etc.... And of course, these sources, archives, they are constantly changing.[13] Thus, the evolution of this process permits a construction of a united vision more comprehensive and nuanced than at the start.[13]
Communisme (1982–)
The Black Book of Communism (1997)
After many contributions and publications on various aspects of communism, both in France and internationally, Courtois participated in the Black Book of Communism, a project published in November 1997, where he was the coordinator and wrote the preface. Also participating in this work were
Content
The book takes stock of the crimes committed by the various forms of power exercised by communism. The introduction by Courtois is entitled "The Crimes of Communism", which was responsible for the deaths of nearly 100 million human beings.[18]
"The crimes of communism have not been subject to a legitimate and normal assessment from a historical or a moral point of view. Without doubt this is here one of the first times that we try an approach to communism in questioning whether its criminality is both central and global to its existence".[19]
The book is part of an essentialist vision of communism developed by Ernst Nolte that it would have as its essence a general criminal nature.[20]
Controversy over number of victims
One of the contributors to the Black Book, Nicolas Werth criticised Courtois for having, in his preface, the figure of 20 million economic or political victims of socialism in the USSR while they did not number more than 15 million victims. Another contributor, Jean-Louis Margolin noted that he had never talked about 1 million deaths in Vietnam contrary to what was claimed by Courtois in his text.
How to calculate in an unbiased fashion the numbers of disparate victims who died in civil wars, economic crises or even common criminals on five continents by various regimes for more than 70 years, was also discussed. The authors of the Century of Communism (2000), led by Claude Pennetier, challenged the uniqueness of communism underpinned by the Black Book "If it is a presupposition that this book would definitely wish to call in question, as well as prejudice, it contains some truth. It is the uniqueness of what is called the "communism of the 20th century. From "Past of an Illusion,[21] "Crimes of Communism,[22] the first error is the non-critical use of a single article and will consequently reduce Communism to "one" fundamental property.[23] "The authors of this book did not have much in common with the Hungary of János Kádár and the Cambodia of Pol Pot.
Controversy on comparison with Nazism
It is less the number of deaths caused by dictatorships who claim to be communist as the comparison with Nazism that has caused controversy in France, which has very similar terms to the famous "quarrel of historians" who tied up Germany in the mid-1980s because of an article by Ernst Nolte.[24] Some writers and commentators were surprised that Courtois made the comparison with Nazism a theme of part of the preface, when no contributions referred to the question.
Courtois raised the comparison between Nazism and Communism as an issue to be dealt with by historians and called for the establishment of an equivalent of the
According to Annette Wieviorka, director of research at CNRS, "Stéphane Courtois shows the comparison between the acute awareness of the Jewish genocide and that of Communism which is a tissue of falsehoods and approximations", highlightened that the
Despite repeated denials of a conflict of interest, some saw this comparison as assimilation pure and simple and as such have seen fit to denounce it. The journalist Benoît Rayski accused some intellectuals, including Stéphane Courtois, Alain Besançon, Ernst Nolte and Jean-François Revel, of wanting to confound the West about the issue of Nazism to promote their own anticommunism.[28]
Main theses
Historiographical influences
Courtois's works, especially The Black Book of Communism, were a continuation of the "turn" in historiography begun in 1995 with the publication of the essay by the excommunist activist historian and member of the Communist Party from 1947 to 1959, François Furet dealing with the "communist illusion" and entitled The Past of an Illusion. Essay on the Communist idea in the 20th century.[29]
Furet had also agreed to write the preface to the Black Book of Communism but he died in July 1997.[30]
"Communism is a form of totalitarianism"
For Courtois, communism is a form of totalitarianism, and the same for Italian fascism and German Nazism. In that sense, he opposed
This thesis is outlined in his publication Communism and totalitarianism (Perrin, 2009) which dealt with the subject chronologically (thematic in the last installment) in a four-part series of discussions dedicated to the totalitarian regimes in Europe:
- When night falls: Origins and emergence of totalitarian regimes in Europe (1900-1934) (L'Age d'Homme, 2001)
- Such a long night: The peak of the totalitarian regimes in Europe (1935-1953) (Editions du Rocher, 2003)
- The day rises: Legacy of totalitarianism in Europe (1953-2005) (Editions du Rocher, 2003)
- The totalitarian logic in Europe (Editions du Rocher, 2006).
"Lenin was the inventor of totalitarianism"
Courtois mainly described this thesis in his biography: Lenin, the inventor of totalitarianism (Perrin, 2007). It is included in a chapter on Communism and totalitarianism (Perrin, 2009).
"Glorious memory" and "tragic memory" of communism in Europe
According to Courtois, there is a clear dichotomy in the history of communism between a "positive memory" of communism in Western Europe (France, Italy, Spain, etc..) and a "tragic memory" in Eastern Europe (Poland, Romania, the Baltic States, etc.).[15] This theory was developed in the book that followed the Black Book of Communism and is entitled Make a clean sweep of the past! History and Memories of Communism in Europe (2002).[31]
In France, the "positive memory" would be echoed in the social conquests of the Popular Front, the participation of the communists in the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War, the resistance to the German occupation during World War II, and the Soviet victory over Nazism, which Courtois called "the universal appeal of Stalingrad" (the Soviet victory at Stalingrad marked the "turning point of the war" in favour of the Allies). He took here the concept coined by Furet the "Universal appeal of October" in reference to the acclaim around the October Revolution.
To oppose this was a "tragic memory", which, in Poland, comes from its annexation after the Nazi-Soviet pact and the Katyn massacre, in the Baltic countries, from annexations by the Soviet Union from 1944 to 1990, and in Romania, from annexation by the Soviet Union of the regions of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina and the establishment of a long dictatorship (45 years). According to the historical Commissions report in 1991 on Roumania, nearly two million people were killed and nearly 300,000 people were deported to labour camps either within Romania itself, or to Siberia or Kazakhstan.[32] This deep trauma resulted in Romania, by the creation in 1993 at Sighet, a prison used by the Romanian communist regime, a place of memory (research institute, library, museum and summer university) unique of its kind: the "Memorial to the Victims of Communism and of the Resistance" (Memorial to the Victims of Communism and of the Resistance) (Memorialul Victimelor Comunismului şi al Rezistenţei). Conference proceedings and discussions supported by Stéphane Courtois during four visits made to the memorial, and the Centre for Studies of Bucharest, were published in November 2003 under the title Courtois The Sighet(Fundatia Academia Civica) [33] and republished in 2006 (Liternet).[34]
In his speech at the Summer University at Sighet entitled "The Lost Honour of the European Left," Courtois denounced the rejection by more than two-thirds of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe of a Resolution and a "Recommendation concerning the condemnation of crimes committed by totalitarian communist regimes", 25 January 2007.[35][36][37]
According to Courtois, the rejection was representative of the phenomenon that Alain Besançon described in 1997 as "historical amnesia and
Public pronouncements
Support for military intervention in Afghanistan and Iraq
He is a member of the Circle of Oratory and is on the editorial board of the journal Brave New World. It is a source of public support for the Afghan war of 2001, against "Islamic fundamentalism".[40]
In the book Iraq, and me. Another look at a world at war,[41] Stéphane Courtois drew a parallel between the communist past and the Islamism of today. Intellectually pro-American,[42] he believes in his famous speech to the UN, Dominique de Villepin was a victim of reactions from Soviet propaganda in France. Having overemphasised "U.S. go home" for fifty years, it leaves its traces.[43] Following the war in Iraq, he found that the abuses committed by American soldiers in Abu Ghraib prison was an "inevitable sideline of war".[44]
Support for Gerard Chauvy
Stéphane Courtois supported the author Gerard Chauvy in the trial that determined part of a biography of the French Resistance leaders Raymond and Lucie Aubrac was public defamation.[45][46][47] François Delpla believed that in the context of this case, "the desire to finish with communism" had been lost on Courtois to the extent that he was running with the wolves against Aubrac, during a campaign questioning the quality of the resistance.[48]
Controversies with French historians
The anticommunist nature of his works, in France, where the French Communist Party has long been "the first party of France", made him be a historian challenged by a fringe of his colleagues, where the appearance of a number of controversies or "historian quarrels".
Henry Rousso
The historian Henry Rousso (Vichy, a past that does not pass, 1996) criticized him for simplifying all militant or communist sympathizers as accomplices of the crimes of Stalinism and, by extension, considered all to be conditionally allied with communist forces or with the Soviets as blind accomplices of Stalin.
Jean-Jacques Becker
The historian Jean-Jacques Becker believed that his research was sensationalist in nature: "This is a fighter who wants to make history effective, that is to say exactly the opposite of history…."[49]
Annie Lacroix-Riz et Jean-Jacques Marie
In 2006, in the magazine Brave New World, he published an article Famine in Ukraine (Holodomor): you said "denial"? (republished on the website of the historical journal Arkheia[50]) in which he publicly accused the French Trotskyist historian, Annie Lacroix-Riz of denying the Holodomor in Ukraine in 1932–1933.
The famine was reported in the
According to him, Annie Lacroix-Rice tried to downplay the event as one of "scarcity" a famine in which several million people died.[51] This article was issued in response to the creation by Annie Lacroix-Riz, of "a website to appeal to his colleagues to mobilize against an unspeakable lie that ran the world for seventy years: No, ladies and gentlemen, there was no famine in Ukraine in 1932-1933, much less a famine that would have caused millions of deaths, and especially not a famine organized by the Soviet regime itself".[50]
Subsequently, in 2007 and in 2008 respectively, Marxist historians Annie Lacroix-Riz and
In 2009, he criticized the Trotskyist historian Jean-Jacques Marie for the contents of chapter entitled: "1922: the year of serenity", published in his biography Lenin, 1870-1924 (Balland, Paris, 2004).
Influence abroad
Although sometimes contested in France, his works are generally more favourably received abroad, especially in the former communist regimes of Eastern Europe.
Romania
Translation of his work
As proof of his ideologic influence, an important part of his work has been translated into Romanian (The Black Book of Communism, Such a long night, Dictionary of communism, Communism and Totalitarianism, The blind spot in European history, etc.).
Sighet Memorial and Study Centre in Bucharest
Since 2001, he has been the rector of the Summer School of the Sighet Memorial.[58] The visits to Romania are the project of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[59]
Estonia
In 2000, Kommunismi must Raamat the Estonian version of the Black Book of Communism received political support by being prefaced by the President of Estonia Lennart Meri. The preface was titled "Shadows over the world" ("Varjud maailma Kohal"). At the same time, the Prime Minister Mart Laar participated in this collective work by signing an additional chapter of 80 pages "Estonia and Communism" ("Eesti ja kommunism").
Moldova
He was awarded the honorary title of Doctor Honoris Causa by the Free International University of Moldova (ULIM), in Chisinau, on 8 July 2011.[60]
Specialised publisher
Besides his career as a historian, he is a specialised publisher who has published authors such as Ernst Nolte or Reynald Secher.
The Age of Man and Communisme (1982–)
Since 1995 he has been Director (co-director from 1982 to 1995) and co-founder, with Annie Kriegel in 1982, of the journal Communisme at the University Press of France and The Age of Man.
Threshold: Archives of communism (1995–1999)
He was co-founder, with Nicolas Werth in 1995, of the collection "Archives of communism" from editions du Seuil.
Rocher: Democracy or totalitarianism (2002–2008)
He was founder and director from 2002 to 2008, of the collection "Democracy or totalitarianism" from Éditions du Rocher. This collection was transferred to Éditions du Cerf in 2010.[59]
Deer: Political Deer (2010–)
He is founder and director since 2010 of the collection "Political Deer" Éditions du Cerf.[61]
Published works
Most of his works were written in French, but some have been directly published in a foreign language (English, German, etc.), and some have been translated into foreign languages (The Black Book of Communism has more 30 translations).
Individual works / collective works (In collaboration: "in coll."; Under his direction: "dir.")
- 1980: The Communist Party at war. De Gaulle, the Resistance, Stalin ... Ramsay, Paris, 585 p. (ISBN 978-2859561345)
- 1987: Communism with ISBN 978-2866762445)
- 1987: Who knew what? The extermination of the Jews 1941-1945 with ISBN 978-2707117052)
- 1989: The foreign blood. MOI Immigrants in the Resistance with Adam Rayski and Denis Peschanski (in coll.), Fayard. German Translation The Red Poster Und der Juden in Immigranten französischen resistance, Schwarze Risse Verlag, Berlin, 1994
- 1989: Testament with Boris Holban (in coll.), Paris, Calmann-Lévy, 1989, 324 p.
- 1991: Comrades and Brothers. Communism and Trade Unions in Europe with Marc Lazar and Michael Waller (in coll.), London, Routledge, 204 p. (ISBN 978-0714634210)
- 1991: Fifty years of French passion. De Gaulle and the Communists with Marc Lazar (ed.) (in coll.), Paris, Balland, 1991, 342 p.
- 1992: Rigour & passion. Homage to Annie Kriegel with Shmuel Trigano and Marc Lazar (dir.) (in coll.), Deer/The Age of Man, Paris / Lausanne, 464p. (ISBN 978-2204049474)
- 1995: History of the French Communist Party with Marc Lazar (in coll.), Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 440 p. (ISBN 978-2130510635)
- 1995 Notes on a report (about the Pierre Cot affair), Nanterre, GEODE / Université Paris X, 74 p.
- 1997: Eugen Fried, the great secret of the ISBN 978-2020220507)
- 1997: The Black Book of Communism. Crimes, terror, repression with ISBN 978-2221082041, 978-2266086110 and 978-2221088616)
- 2001: A look at the crisis of unionism with Dominique Labbé (eds.) (in coll.), L'Harmattan, 222 p. (ISBN 978-2747514620)
- 2001: When night falls. Origins and emergence of totalitarian regimes in Europe, 1900-1934 (ed.), The Age of Man, Lausanne 416 p. (ISBN 978-2825116104)
- 2002: Make a clean sweep of the past! History and Memory of Communism in Europe (ed.), Robert Laffont, (ISBN 978-2221095003)
- 2002: "Ein Gespenst geht um in Europa." Das Erbe kommunistischer Ideologien (dir.) (in coll.) with Uwe Backes, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna Bölhau Verlag, 2002, 454 p. (ISBN 978-3412150013)
- 2003: Such a long night. The climax of the totalitarian regimes in Europe, 1935-1953 (dir.), Editions du Rocher, 532 p. (ISBN 978-2268045825)
- 2003: Courtois at Sighet, Fundatia Civic Academy Collection: Oral History No. 3, Bucharest, 2003, 304 p. (ISBN 973-7893530)
- 2006: The day rises. The legacy of totalitarianism in Europe, 1953-2005 (dir.), Editions du Rocher, 494 p. (ISBN 978-2268057019)
- 2006: The Totalitarian Logic in Europe (dir.), Editions du Rocher, 615 p. (ISBN 978-2268059785)
- 2006: Communism in France. The documentation revolution and historiographical renewal (dir.), Publishing Cujas, Paris (ISBN 978-2254076048)
- 2007: Dictionary of communism (dir.), Editions Larousse, Paris (ISBN 978-2035837820)
- 2009: Return to the Soviet-Nazi alliance, 70 years on, Foundation for Political Innovation, 16 p. (ISBN 978-2917613368)
- 2009: Communism and totalitarianism, Perrin, Paris (ISBN 978-2262030803)
- 2009: The blind spot of European memory. 23 August 1939: The Soviet-Nazi alliance, Fundatia Civic Academy, Bucharest, 142 p. (ISBN 978-9738214514)
- 2010: French Bolshevism, Fayard, Paris (ISBN 978-2213661377)
- 2011: Exit from communism. The changing of an epoque in Europe (dir.), Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 660 p., (ISBN 978-2130587675)
- 2012: Democracy and revolution. A hundred examples from 1789 to now (ed.) (coll.) Jean-Pierre Deschodt, Yolène Dilas-Rocherieux, Deer / University Press of the Catholic Institute of Graduate Studies, (ISBN 978-2204098014)
Contributions (preface, afterword, chapter)
- 1992: introduction in Youth into the abyss by Liliane Lévy-Osbert, International Studies and Documentation, Paris (ISBN 978-2851391056)
- 2000: preface in European Civil War 1917-1945 by Ernst Nolte, Syrtes Publishing, (ISBN 978-2845450134)
- 2006: interview "The truth about the underground" in The Dossier Kadare. Following the truth about the underground by Shaban Sinani, Ismail Kadare (in coll.), Odile Jacob, Paris, p. 141-205 (ISBN 978-2738117403)
- 2008 edition prepared and presented by Stéphane Courtois, Fascism & Totalitarianism, by Ernst Nolte, Robert Laffont, Mouthpieces collection, Paris, 1022 p.
- 2008: chapter "From the French Revolution to the October Revolution" in The Black Book of the French Revolution Renaud Escande et al., Cerf, Paris, (ISBN 978-2204081603)
- 2008: preface "From Babeuf to Lemkin: Genocide and Modernity" in ISBN 978-2204087322)
- 2011: afterword in Milestones by ISBN 978-2204092715)
- 2011: chapter "Furet and Nolte: for a history of Europe in the 20th century" in François Furet. French Revolution, World War, Communism by Christophe Maillard and Pierre Statius, Cerf, Paris (ISBN 9782204093279)
- 2011: afterword "Neo-Robespierrist historians and killing the memory of the Vendée" in Vendee: From Genocide to memory-cide by Reynald Secher, Cerf, Paris, (ISBN 978-2204095808)
See also
- Sovietology
- R. J. Rummel
- François Furet
- Annie Kriegel
Books and articles
- Bowd, Gavin (2009). La France et la Roumanie communiste. Paris: Editions L'Harmattan. ISBN 9782296215863.
- Bowles, Brett (2011). "Historiography, Memory, and the Politics of Form in Mosco Boucault's Terrorists in Retirement". In Sandra Ott (ed.). War, Exile, Justice, and Everyday Life, 1936–1946. Reno: University of Nevada. ISBN 978-1-935709-09-1.
- Sweets, John (2003). "Jews and Non-Jews in France During the Second World War". In David Bankier and Israel Gutman (ed.). Nazi Europe and the Final Solution. Jerusalem: Yad Vashem. pp. 361–373. ISBN 9781845454104.
References
- ^ Ronald Grigir Suny. Russian Terror/ism and Revisionist Historiography. Australian Journal of Politics and History: Volume 53, Number 1, 2007, pp. 5-19. "The Black Book may be the single most influential text on the Soviet Union and other state socialist regimes and movements published since The GuLag Archipelago."
- ^ Ronald Aronso.n Review: Communism's Posthumous Trial Reviewed Work(s): The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression byStéphane Courtois; The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century by François Furet; The Burden of Responsibility: Blum, Camus, Aron, and the French Twentieth Century by Tony Judt; Le Siècle des communismes by Michel Dreyfus. History and Theory, Vol. 42, No. 2 (May 2003), pp. 222-245
- ISBN 0-674-07608-7.
- S2CID 159716738.
- ISBN 9789197748728. Retrieved 17 November 2021 – via Forum för levande historia.
Bearing in mind the charged nature of the subject, it is polemically effective to make such comparisons, but it does not seem particularly fruitful, neither morally nor scientifically, to judge the regimes on the basis of their 'dangerousness' or to assess the relationship between communism and Nazism on the basis of what the international academic community calls their 'atrocities toll' or 'body count'. In that case, should the crimes of all communist regimes, in the Soviet Union, China, Cambodia and other countries where communism is or has been the dominant party, be compared to the Nazi regime's massacre of six million Jews? Should the Nazi death toll also include the tens of millions of people who the German Nazi armies and their supporting troops killed during the Second World War? Not even Courtois' analytical qualification, that ranking the two regimes the same is based on the idea that the 'weapon of hunger' was used systematically by both the Nazi regime and a number of communist regimes, makes this more reasonable, since this 'weapon' on the whole played a very limited role in the Nazi genocide in relation to other types of methods of mass destruction, and in relation to how it was used by communist regimes.
- ^ Christophe Bourseiller, Les Maoïstes. La folle histoire des gardes rouges français, Paris, Plon, 1996, p. 277.
- ^ Christophe Bourseiller, The Maoists. The mad history of the French Red Guards, Paris, Plon, 1996, p. 277 (Fr).
- ^ a b Bruno Groppo and Bernard Pudal, article Three issues under debate in the Century of Communism, ed. de l'Atelier, 2000, paperback Points-Seuil, 2004, p. 107-108 (Fr)
- ^ a b Bowles 2011, p. 215.
- ^ a b Bowd 2009, p. 550.
- ^ Bowles 2011, p. 217.
- ^ Sweets 2003, p. 370.
- ^ YouTube.
- ^ « Chapter 20. - "History of Communism: the documentation revolution" in Communism and Totalitarianism, Stéphane Courtois, Perrin, Paris, 2009, p. 401
- ^ YouTube
- ^ Annie Kriegel and Stéphane Courtois, Eugen Fried, Le Seuil, 1997, p. 7
- ^ "Stéphane Courtois, How to understand Stalin, conference of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, 24 Febnruary 2003". Archived from the original on 14 October 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
- ^ The Black Book of Communism. Crimes, Terror, Repression (dir.), Robert Laffont, Paris, 1998, p. 8.
- ^ Stéphene Courtois, The Crimes of Communism in The Black Book of Communism, Robert Laffont, 1997, p. 13
- ^ Serge Wolikow, article Three issues under debate in The Century of Communism, éd. de l'Atelier, 2000, paperback Points-Seuil, 2004, pp. 710–711 (Fr)
- ^ This is the book by François Furet
- ^ This is the introduction by Courtois in the Livre noir
- ^ First paragraph of the Introduction to The Century of Communism, 2000
- ^ Ernst Nolte, A past that does not happen, published in 1986 in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, published in France in the collection of texts Fascism & Totalitarianism, Robert Laffont, et al. "Mouthpieces" texts compiled by Stéphane Courtois.
- ^ Fascism & Totalitarianism, pp. 14–15
- ^ Le Monde, 21 September 2000.
- ^ Annette Wieviorka, Le Monde of 27 November 1997
- ^ Benedict Rayski, The Jewish child and the Ukrainian child. Reflections on blasphemy. See also the report of Dominique Vidal, "The Jewish child and the Ukrainian child. Reflections on a blasphemy, Le Monde Diplomatique, February 2002
- YouTube
- YouTube
- ISBN 978-2262030803
- ^ For Romania: Raportul Comisiei Prezidenţiale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România (Report of the Presidential Commission for the Analysis of the Communist Dictatorship in Romania) Raportul Comisiei Prezidenţiale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România [1] and Traian Băsescu: condemned explicit şi Categoric sistemul comunist din România [2]; see also Presidential Commission for the Study of the Communist Dictatorship in Moldova: Raportul Comisiei pentru studierea şi bilanţul regimului din Republica Moldova comunist (Report of the Commission for the study and assessment of the communist regime in the Republic of Moldova) on [3]
- ISBN 973-8214-18-1
- ISBN 978-9737893536
- ^ The Lost Honour of the European Left Archived 19 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Stéphane Courtois article appeared in the Romanian newspaper Romania Libera (România Liberă), Adrian Bucurescu, Saturday, 28 July 2007
- ^ Romania free - The Lost Honour of the European Left, Stéphane Courtois, Sighet Memorial - Press Release, 28 July 2007
- ^ Chapter 23: The Lost Honour of the European Left in Communism and Totalitarianism, Stéphane Courtois, Perrin, Paris, 2009, p. 407
- ^ Alain Besançon, in his speech "Memory and forgetfulness of Bolshevism" delivered at the Institut de France at the annual public meeting of the five academies, 21 October 1997, and in his book The misfortune of the century of communism, Nazism and the uniqueness of the Holocaust, Fayard, Paris, 1998, 165 p.
- ^ In contrast to Sighet where there is also a monument to victims of the Holocaust in Romania, inaugurated by Elie Wiesel at the end of the same street 200 metres from the "Memorial to the Victims of Communism and of the Resistance"
- ^ Stéphane Courtois et al., Stéphane Courtois et al, "This war is ours"[permanent dead link], Le Monde, 8 November 2001.
- ^ Rigoulot Pierre and Michel Taubman (ed.), Iraq, an me. Another look at a world at war, Editions du Rocher, et al. "Democracy and Totalitarianism", 2004, 424 p.
- ^ "The French americanophile exercise", Le Monde, 22 November 2007.
- ^ "The best friends of America" art. cit.
- ^ "The best friends of America" Archived 16 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Libération, 9 May 2006.
- ^ Confrontation organized by the newspaper Libération between Aubrac and seven other historians Jean-Pierre Vernant.
- ^ Lyon-Mag, No. 57, March 1997.
- ^ "The field of memory". Archived from the original on 15 March 2007. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), conference 4 April 2005. - ^ "To finish with communism" was the issue of the Arte TV channel on 16 October 2001, followed by a discussion on the Internet with Courtois. See the article by François Delpla, "An extreme example of slanderous perseverance" « Un exemple extrême de persévérance calomniatrice »
- ^ "The Black Book of Communism: the controversy of understanding", Twentieth Century. History Review, no 59, July–September 1998, p. 179. Perseus Online En ligne sur Persée
- ^ a b c Famine in Ukraine (Holodomor): you said "denial? Archived 21 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Stéphane Courtois, Arkheia, www.arkheia-revue.org
- ^ Famine in Ukraine (Holodomor): you said "denial"?, Stéphane Courtois, Brave New World No. 1, Paris, Denëol, 2006.
- ^ Interview with Stéphane Courtois Communism equivalence to Nazism is finally allowed! Le Choc du mois 17 November 2007
- ^ Letter from Annie Lacroix-Riz
- ^ Jean-Jacques Marie , "Stéphane Courtois in his works", in Journal of the labour movement No. 37, first quarter 2008
- ^ Lenin 19 March 1922 quoted in Major manipulations of modern times, Barnard Raquin, Trajectories, Paris, 2005, p. 43
- ^ a b Chapter VII: Lenin and the destruction of the Russian intelligentsia Archived 27 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine in Totalitarianism and Communism Stéphane Courtois, Perrin, Paris, pp. 133–134
- ^ Chapter VI: Terror: ordinary means of government in Totalitarianism and Communism, Stéphane Courtois, Perrin, Paris, p. 125
- ^ Summer School Sighet, 2008, Sighet Memorial website
- ^ a b Stéphane Courtois website
- ^ "The historian Stéphane Courtois in Chisinau", Latitude France (Ministry of Foreign Affairs), 22 July 2011
- ^ Editions du Cerf website Archived 4 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine
External links
- Official website of Stéphane Courtois
- Class Genocide: definition, description, comparison, Notes from the Holocaust, January 2002.
- Enzo Traverso, "From anticommunism. The history of the 20th century journal by Nolte, Furet and Courtois", in Man and Society, L'Harmattan, 2001, p. 169-194.
- Brochures, freely and legally downloadable in PDF
- (Fr) Thorez, Stalin and France. Liberation in the Cold War, Stéphane Courtois, in Materials for the history of our time, 1995, Volume 39, Issue 39-40, p. 24-25
- (Fr) Return to the Soviet-Nazi alliance, 70 years on Archived 19 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Stéphane Courtois, Foundation for Political Innovation, Paris, 2009
- (Fr) Lenin and the destruction of the Russian intelligentsia (extract), Communism and Totalitarianism, Stéphane Courtois, Perrin, Paris, 2009
- (Ro) Courtois at Sighet Stéphane Courtois, Editura Liternet, Bucharest, 2006