Ukraine
Ukraine Україна (Ukrainian) | |
---|---|
Anthem: Державний Гімн України Derzhavnyi Himn Ukrainy " | |
Demonym(s) | Ukrainian |
Government | Unitary semi-presidential republic |
Volodymyr Zelenskyy | |
Denys Shmyhal | |
Ruslan Stefanchuk | |
Legislature | Verkhovna Rada |
Formation | |
882 | |
1199 | |
18 August 1649 | |
20 November 1917 | |
10 March 1919 | |
24 October 1945 | |
24 August 1991 | |
28 June 1996 | |
Area | |
• Total | 603,628[4] km2 (233,062 sq mi) (45th) |
• Water (%) | 3.8[5] |
Population | |
• 2023 estimate | 33.2 million[6] (36th) |
• Density | 60.9/km2 (157.7/sq mi) (126th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2023 estimate |
• Total | $474.773 billion[6] |
• Per capita | $14,303[6] |
GDP (nominal) | 2023 estimate |
• Total | $173.413 billion[6] |
• Per capita | $5,224[6] |
Gini (2020) | 25.6[7] low |
HDI (2022) | 0.734[8] high (100th) |
Currency | Hryvnia (₴) (UAH) |
Time zone | UTC+2[9] (EET) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+3 (EEST) |
Date format | dd.mm.yyyy |
Driving side | right |
Calling code | +380 |
ISO 3166 code | UA |
Internet TLD |
Ukraine[a] is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which borders it to the east and northeast.[b][10] It also borders Belarus to the north; Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary to the west; and Romania and Moldova[c] to the southwest; with a coastline along the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov to the south and southeast.[d] Kyiv is the nation's capital and largest city, followed by Kharkiv, Dnipro and Odesa. Ukraine's official language is Ukrainian; Russian is also widely spoken, especially in the east and south.
During the
Ukraine gained independence in 1991 as the
Ukraine is a unitary state and its system of government is a semi-presidential republic. A developing country, it is the poorest country in Europe by nominal GDP per capita[15] and corruption remains a significant issue.[16] However, due to its extensive fertile land, pre-war Ukraine was one of the largest grain exporters in the world.[17][18] It is a founding member of the United Nations, as well as a member of the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization, and the OSCE. It is in the process of joining the European Union and has applied to join NATO.[19]
Etymology and orthography
The
Another interpretation is that the name of Ukraine means "region" or "country."In the English-speaking world during most of the 20th century, Ukraine (whether independent or not) was referred to as "the Ukraine".[21] This is because the word ukraina means 'borderland'[22] so the definite article would be natural in the English language; this is similar to Nederlanden, which means 'low lands' and is rendered in English as "the Netherlands".[23] However, since Ukraine's declaration of independence in 1991, this usage has become politicised and is now rarer, and style guides advise against its use.[24][25] US ambassador William Taylor said that using "the Ukraine" implies disregard for Ukrainian sovereignty.[26] The official Ukrainian position is that "the Ukraine" is both grammatically and politically incorrect.[27]
History
Early history
1.4 million year old stone tools from
From the 6th century BC,
In the 5th and 6th centuries, the
Golden Age of Kyiv
The establishment of the state of
During the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became the largest and most powerful state in Europe, a period known as its Golden Age.
The
Foreign domination
In 1349, in the aftermath of the
In 1569, the
Cossack Hetmanate
Deprived of native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, the peasants and townspeople began turning for protection to the emerging
In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king, which enjoyed wide support from the local population.[65] Khmelnytsky founded the Cossack Hetmanate, which existed until 1764 (some sources claim until 1782).[66] After Khmelnytsky suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Berestechko in 1651, he turned to the Russian tsar for help. In 1654, Khmelnytsky was subject to the Pereiaslav Agreement, forming a military and political alliance with Russia that acknowledged loyalty to the Russian monarch.
After his death, the Hetmanate went through a devastating 30-year war amongst Russia, Poland, the
The Hetmanate's autonomy was severely restricted since Poltava. In the years 1764–1781,
in 1795.19th and early 20th century
The 19th century saw the rise of Ukrainian nationalism. With growing urbanization and modernization and a cultural trend toward
Ukraine, like the rest of the Russian Empire, joined the
Ukraine plunged into turmoil with the beginning of
An attempt to create an independent state, the left-leaning Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR), was first announced by Mykhailo Hrushevsky, but the period was plagued by an extremely unstable political and military environment. It was first deposed in a coup d'état led by Pavlo Skoropadskyi, which yielded the Ukrainian State under the German protectorate, and the attempt to restore the UNR under the Directorate ultimately failed as the Ukrainian army was regularly overrun by other forces. The short-lived West Ukrainian People's Republic and Hutsul Republic also failed to join the rest of Ukraine.[82]
The result of the conflict was a partial victory for the Second Polish Republic, which annexed the Western Ukrainian provinces, as well as a larger-scale victory for the pro-Soviet forces, which succeeded in dislodging the remaining factions and eventually established the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Ukraine). Meanwhile, modern-day Bukovina was occupied by Romania and Carpathian Ruthenia was admitted to Czechoslovakia as an autonomous region.[83]
The conflict over Ukraine, a part of the broader Russian Civil War, devastated the whole of the former Russian Empire, including eastern and central Ukraine. The fighting left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless in the former Russian Empire's territory. The eastern provinces were additionally impacted by a famine in 1921.[84][85]
Inter-war period
During the inter-war period, in Poland, Marshal Józef Piłsudski sought Ukrainian support by offering local autonomy as a way to minimise Soviet influence in Poland's eastern Kresy region.[86][87] However, this approach was abandoned after Piłsudski's death in 1935, due to continued unrest among the Ukrainian population, including assassinations of Polish government officials by the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN); with the Polish government responding by restricting rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality.[88][89] In consequence, the underground Ukrainian nationalist and militant movement, which arose in the 1920s gained wider support.
Meanwhile, the recently constituted Soviet Ukraine became one of the founding republics of the
Around the same time, Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin instituted the New Economic Policy (NEP), which introduced a form of market socialism, allowing some private ownership of small and medium-sized productive enterprises, hoping to reconstruct the post-war Soviet Union that had been devastated by both WWI and later the civil war. The NEP was successful at restoring the formerly war-torn nation to pre-WWI levels of production and agricultural output by the mid-1920s, much of the latter based in Ukraine.[91] These policies attracted many prominent former UNR figures, including former UNR leader Hrushevsky, to return to Soviet Ukraine, where they were accepted, and participated in the advancement of Ukrainian science and culture.[92]
This period was cut short when
However, as a consequence of Stalin's new policy, the Ukrainian peasantry suffered from the
Following on the Russian Civil War and collectivisation, the Great Purge, while killing Stalin's perceived political enemies, resulted in a profound loss of a new generation of Ukrainian intelligentsia, known today as the Executed Renaissance.[94]
World War II
Following the
Although the majority of Ukrainians fought in or alongside the Red Army and
In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million
The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front.[115] The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated at 6 million,[116][117] including an estimated one and a half million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen,[118] sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.6 million Soviet troop losses,[119][120][121] 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians.[119][121][e][f] The Victory Day is celebrated as one of eleven Ukrainian national holidays.[122]
Post–war Soviet Ukraine
The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.
Following the death of Stalin in 1953,
By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.[130] Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production[131] and an important centre of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research, though heavy industry still had an outsided influence.[132] The Soviet government invested in hydroelectric and nuclear power projects to cater to the energy demand that the development carried. On 26 April 1986, however, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history.[133]
Independence
Ukraine was initially viewed as having favourable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union,
From the political perspective, one of the defining features of the
Even though Russia had signed the
The military conflict with Russia shifted the government's policy towards the West. Shortly after Yanukovych fled Ukraine, the country signed the EU association agreement in June 2014, and its citizens were granted visa-free travel to the European Union three years later. In January 2019, the
Geography
Ukraine is the second-largest European country, after Russia. Lying between latitudes 44° and 53° N, and longitudes 22° and 41° E., it is mostly in the East European Plain. Ukraine covers an area of 603,550 square kilometres (233,030 sq mi), with a coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi).[48]
The landscape of Ukraine consists mostly of fertile
Ukraine also has a number of highland regions such as the
Significant natural resources in Ukraine include
]Climate
Ukraine is firmly in the mid-latitudes, and generally has a
Water availability from the major river basins is expected to decrease due to climate change, especially in summer. This poses risks to the agricultural sector.[186] The negative impacts of climate change on agriculture are mostly felt in the south of the country, which has a steppe climate. In the north, some crops may be able to benefit from a longer growing season.[187] The World Bank has stated that Ukraine is highly vulnerable to climate change.[188]
Biodiversity
Ukraine contains six terrestrial
Urban areas
Ukraine has 457 cities, of which 176 are designated as oblast-class, 279 as smaller raion-class cities, and two as special legal status cities. There are also 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages.[195]
Rank
|
Name | Region
|
Pop.
|
Rank
|
Name | Region
|
Pop. |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kyiv Kharkiv |
1 | Kyiv | Kyiv (city) | 2,952,301 | 11 | Mariupol | Donetsk | 425,681 | Odesa Dnipro |
2 | Kharkiv | Kharkiv | 1,421,125 | 12 | Luhansk | Luhansk | 397,677 | ||
3 | Odesa | Odesa | 1,010,537 | 13 | Vinnytsia | Vinnytsia | 369,739 | ||
4 | Dnipro | Dnipropetrovsk | 968,502 | 14 | Simferopol | Crimea |
340,540 | ||
5 | Donetsk | Donetsk | 901,645 | 15 | Makiivka | Donetsk | 338,968 | ||
6 | Lviv | Lviv | 717,273 | 16 | Chernihiv | Chernihiv | 282,747 | ||
7 | Zaporizhzhia | Zaporizhzhia | 710,052 | 17 | Poltava | Poltava | 279,593 | ||
8 | Kryvyi Rih | Dnipropetrovsk | 603,904 | 18 | Kherson | Kherson | 279,131 | ||
9 | Sevastopol | Sevastopol (city) | 479,394 | 19 | Khmelnytskyi | Khmelnytskyi | 274,452 | ||
10 | Mykolaiv | Mykolaiv | 470,011 | 20 | Cherkasy | Cherkasy | 269,836 |
Politics
Ukraine is a republic under a
Constitution
The Constitution of Ukraine was adopted and ratified at the 5th session of the Verkhovna Rada, the parliament of Ukraine, on 28 June 1996.[198] The constitution was passed with 315 ayes out of 450 votes possible (300 ayes minimum).[198] All other laws and other normative[clarification needed] legal acts of Ukraine must conform to the constitution. The right to amend the constitution through a special legislative procedure is vested exclusively in the parliament. The only body that may interpret the constitution and determine whether legislation conforms to it is the Constitutional Court of Ukraine. Since 1996, the public holiday Constitution Day is celebrated on 28 June.[199][200] On 7 February 2019, the Verkhovna Rada voted to amend the constitution to state Ukraine's strategic objectives as joining the European Union and NATO.[201]
Government
The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is the formal head of state.[202] Ukraine's legislative branch includes the 450-seat
Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of the Crimean parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional Court, should they be found to violate the constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. The Supreme Court is the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations are appointed by the president in accordance with the proposals of the prime minister.[206]
Courts and law enforcement
Martial law was declared when Russia invaded in February 2022,[207] and continues.[208][209] The courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by Ukrainian law since 2002. Judges are largely well protected from dismissal (except for gross misconduct). Court justices are appointed by presidential decree for an initial period of five years, after which Ukraine's Supreme Council confirms their positions for life. Although there are still problems, the system is considered to have been much improved since Ukraine's independence in 1991. The Supreme Court is regarded as an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the Ukrainian government. The World Justice Project ranks Ukraine 66 out of 99 countries surveyed in its annual Rule of Law Index.[210]
In 2010, President Yanukovych formed an expert group to make recommendations on how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on court organization".[213] One day later, he stated "We can no longer disgrace our country with such a court system."[213] The criminal judicial system and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive.[214]
Since 2010 court proceedings can be held in Russian by mutual consent of the parties. Citizens unable to speak Ukrainian or Russian may use their native language or the services of a translator.[215][216] Previously all court proceedings had to be held in Ukrainian.[214]
Law enforcement agencies are controlled by the
Foreign relations
From 1999 to 2001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of the
Ukraine considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective,
In 1992, Ukraine joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (now the
Ukraine is the most active member of the
In 2020, in
In 2021, the
Military
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000-man military force on its territory, equipped with the third-largest
Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed the
Ukraine played an increasing role in peacekeeping operations. In 2014, the Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sagaidachniy joined the European Union's counter piracy
Following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state.
As part of modernization after the beginning of the
Administrative divisions
The system of Ukrainian subdivisions reflects the country's status as a unitary state (as stated in the country's constitution) with unified legal and administrative regimes for each unit.
Including Sevastopol and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea that were annexed by the Russian Federation in 2014, Ukraine consists of 27 regions: twenty-four oblasts (provinces), one autonomous republic (Autonomous Republic of Crimea), and two cities of special status—Kyiv, the capital, and Sevastopol. The 24 oblasts and Crimea are subdivided into 136[241] raions (districts) and city municipalities of regional significance, or second-level administrative units.
Populated places in Ukraine are split into two categories: urban and rural. Urban populated places are split further into cities and urban-type settlements (a Soviet administrative invention), while rural populated places consist of villages and settlements (a generally used term). All cities have a certain degree of self-rule depending on their significance such as national significance (as in the case of Kyiv and Sevastopol), regional significance (within each oblast or autonomous republic) or district significance (all the rest of cities). A city's significance depends on several factors such as its population, socio-economic and historical importance and infrastructure.
Oblasts | |
---|---|
Autonomous republic | Cities with special status
|
Economy
In 2021, agriculture was the biggest sector of the economy. Ukraine is one of the world's
In 2021, the average salary in Ukraine reached its highest level at almost
In 2021 mineral commodities and light industry were important sectors.[252] Ukraine produces nearly all types of transportation vehicles and spacecraft.[253][254][255] Antonov airplanes and KrAZ trucks are exported to many countries. The European Union is the country's main trade partner, and remittances from Ukrainians working abroad are important.[252]
Agriculture
Ukraine is among the world's top agricultural producers and exporters and is often described as the "bread basket of Europe". During the 2020/21 international wheat marketing season (July–June), it ranked as the sixth largest wheat exporter, accounting for nine percent of world wheat trade.[256] The country is also a major global exporter of maize, barley and rapeseed. In 2020/21, it accounted for 12 percent of global trade in maize and barley and for 14 percent of world rapeseed exports. Its trade share is even greater in the sunflower oil sector, with the country accounting for about 50 percent of world exports in 2020/2021.[256]
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), further to causing the loss of lives and increasing humanitarian needs, the likely disruptions caused by the Russo-Ukrainian War to Ukraine's grain and oilseed sectors, could jeopardize the food security of many countries, especially those that are highly dependent on Ukraine and Russia for their food and fertilizer imports.[257] Several of these countries fall into the Least Developed Country (LDC) group, while many others belong to the group of Low-Income Food-Deficit Countries (LIFDCs).[258][259] For example Eritrea sourced 47 percent of its wheat imports in 2021 from Ukraine. Overall, more than 30 nations depend on Ukraine and the Russian Federation for over 30 percent of their wheat import needs, many of them in North Africa and Western and Central Asia.[256]
Tourism
Before the
Transport
Many roads and bridges were destroyed, and international maritime travel was blocked by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[245] Before that it was mainly through the Port of Odesa, from where ferries sailed regularly to Istanbul, Varna and Haifa. The largest ferry company operating these routes was Ukrferry.[262] There are over 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of navigable waterways on 7 rivers, mostly on the Danube, Dnieper and Pripyat. All Ukraine's rivers freeze over in winter, limiting navigation.[263]
Ukraine International Airlines, is the flag carrier and the largest airline, with its head office in Kyiv[266] and its main hub at Kyiv's Boryspil International Airport. It operated domestic and international passenger flights and cargo services to Europe, the Middle East, the United States,[229] Canada,[267] and Asia.
Energy
Energy in Ukraine is mainly from gas and coal, followed by nuclear then oil.[170] The coal industry has been disrupted by conflict.[268] Most gas and oil is imported, but since 2015 energy policy has prioritised diversifying energy supply.[269]
About half of electricity generation is nuclear and a quarter coal.[170] The largest nuclear power plant in Europe, the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, is in Ukraine. Fossil fuel subsidies were US$2.2 billion in 2019.[270] Until the 2010s all of Ukraine's nuclear fuel came from Russia, but now most does not.[271]
Some energy infrastructure was destroyed in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[272][273] The contract to transit Russian gas expires at the end of 2024.[274]
In early 2022 Ukraine and Moldova decoupled their electricity grids from the Integrated Power System of Russia and Belarus; and the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity synchronized them with continental Europe.[275][276]
Information technology
Key officials may use Starlink as backup.[277] The IT industry contributed almost 5 per cent to Ukraine's GDP in 2021[278] and in 2022 continued both inside and outside the country.[279]
Demographics
Before the
Following the
According to the
Outside the former Soviet Union, the largest source of incoming immigrants in Ukraine's post-independence period was from four Asian countries, namely China, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan.
Language
According to Ukraine's constitution, the
Effective in August 2012,
In 2014, following the
Ukrainian is the primary language used in the vast majority of Ukraine. 67% of Ukrainians speak Ukrainian as their primary language, while 30% speak Russian as their primary language.[302] In eastern and southern Ukraine, Russian is the primary language in some cities, while Ukrainian is used in rural areas. Hungarian is spoken in Zakarpattia Oblast.[303] There is no consensus among scholars whether Rusyn, also spoken in Zakarpattia, is a distinct language or a dialect of Ukrainian.[304] The Ukrainian government does not recognise Rusyn and Rusyns as a distinct language and people.[305]
For a large part of the Soviet era, the number of Ukrainian speakers declined from generation to generation, and by the mid-1980s, the usage of the Ukrainian language in public life had decreased significantly.
Diaspora
The Ukrainian diaspora comprises Ukrainians and their descendants who live outside Ukraine around the world, especially those who maintain some kind of connection to the land of their ancestors and maintain their feeling of Ukrainian national identity within their own local community.[312] The Ukrainian diaspora is found throughout numerous regions worldwide including other post-Soviet states as well as in Canada,[313] and other countries such as Poland,[314] the United States,[315] the UK[316][317] and Brazil.[318]
The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has led to
Religion
Ukraine has the world's
In 2019, 82% of Ukrainians were Christians; out of which 72.7% declared themselves to be
Health
This section needs to be updated.(March 2022) |
Ukraine's healthcare system is state subsidised and freely available to all Ukrainian citizens and registered residents. However, it is not compulsory to be treated in a state-run hospital as a number of private medical complexes do exist nationwide.[327] The public sector employs most healthcare professionals, with those working for private medical centres typically also retaining their state employment as they are mandated to provide care at public health facilities on a regular basis.[328]
All of Ukraine's medical service providers and hospitals are subordinate to the
Ukraine faces a number of major public health issues[
Active reformation of Ukraine's healthcare system was initiated right after the appointment of
Education
According to the Ukrainian constitution, access to free education is granted to all citizens. Complete general secondary education is compulsory in the state schools which constitute the overwhelming majority. Free higher education in state and communal educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis.[335]
Because of the Soviet Union's emphasis on total access of education for all citizens, which continues today, the
Among the oldest is also the
The Ukrainian higher education system comprises higher educational establishments,
Ukraine produces the fourth largest number of
Regional differences
On the Russian language, on Soviet Union and Ukrainian nationalism, opinion in Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine tends to be the exact opposite of those in Western Ukraine; while opinions in Central Ukraine on these topics tend be less extreme.[344][346][347][348]
Similar historical divisions also remain evident at the level of individual social identification. Attitudes toward the most important political issue, relations with Russia, differed strongly between
However, all were united by an overarching Ukrainian identity based on shared economic difficulties, showing that other attitudes are determined more by culture and politics than by demographic differences.[349][350] Surveys of regional identities in Ukraine have shown that the feeling of belonging to a "Soviet identity" is strongest in the Donbas (about 40%) and the Crimea (about 30%).[351]
During
Culture
Ukrainian customs are heavily influenced by Orthodox Christianity, the dominant religion in the country.[361] Gender roles also tend to be more traditional, and grandparents play a greater role in bringing up children, than in the West.[362] The culture of Ukraine has also been influenced by its eastern and western neighbours, reflected in its architecture, music and art.[363]
The Communist era had quite a strong effect on the art and writing of Ukraine.[364] In 1932, Stalin made socialist realism state policy in the Soviet Union when he promulgated the decree "On the Reconstruction of Literary and Art Organisations". This greatly stifled creativity. During the 1980s glasnost (openness) was introduced and Soviet artists and writers again became free to express themselves as they wanted.[365]
As of 2023[update], UNESCO inscribed 8 properties in Ukraine on the
The tradition of the Easter eggs, known as pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine.[372] In the city of Kolomyia near the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, the museum of Pysanka was built in 2000 and won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine action.
Since 2012, the Ministry of Culture of Ukraine has formed the National Inventory of Elements of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Ukraine,[373] which consists of 88 items as of December 2023.[374]
Libraries
The Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine, is the main academic library and main scientific information centre in Ukraine.
During the
Literature
Ukrainian literature has origins in
The Cossacks established an independent society and popularized a new kind of epic poem, which marked a high point of Ukrainian oral literature.[377][failed verification] These advances were then set back in the 17th and early 18th centuries, as many Ukrainian authors wrote in Russian or Polish. Nonetheless, by the late 18th century, the modern literary Ukrainian language finally emerged.[376] In 1798, the modern era of the Ukrainian literary tradition began with Ivan Kotliarevsky's publication of Eneida in the Ukrainian vernacular.[378]
By the 1830s, a Ukrainian romantic literature began to develop, and the nation's most renowned cultural figure, romanticist poet-painter Taras Shevchenko emerged. Whereas Ivan Kotliarevsky is considered to be the father of literature in the Ukrainian vernacular; Shevchenko is the father of a national revival.[379]
Then, in 1863, the use of the Ukrainian language in print was effectively
Ukrainian literature continued to flourish in the early Soviet years when nearly all literary trends were approved. These policies faced a steep decline in the 1930s, when prominent representatives as well as many others were killed by the NKVD during the Great Purge. In general around 223 writers were repressed by what was known as the Executed Renaissance.[380] These repressions were part of Stalin's implemented policy of socialist realism. The doctrine did not necessarily repress the use of the Ukrainian language, but it required that writers follow a certain style in their works.
Literary freedom grew in the late 1980s and early 1990s alongside the decline and collapse of the USSR and the reestablishment of Ukrainian independence in 1991.[376]
Architecture
Ukrainian architecture includes the motifs and styles that are found in structures built in modern Ukraine, and by
After the union with the
Weaving and embroidery
Artisan
National dress is woven and highly decorated. Weaving with handmade looms is still practised in the village of Krupove, situated in Rivne Oblast. The village is the birthplace of two internationally recognized personalities in the scene of national crafts fabrication: Nina Myhailivna[386] and Uliana Petrivna.[387]
Music
Music is a major part of Ukrainian culture, with a long history and many influences. From traditional folk music, to classical and modern rock, Ukraine has produced several internationally recognised musicians including Kirill Karabits, Okean Elzy and Ruslana. Elements from traditional Ukrainian folk music made their way into Western music and even into modern jazz. Ukrainian music sometimes presents a perplexing mix of exotic melismatic singing with chordal harmony. The most striking general characteristic of authentic ethnic Ukrainian folk music is the wide use of minor modes or keys which incorporate augmented second intervals.[389]
During the Baroque period, music had a place of considerable importance in the curriculum of the
The first dedicated musical academy was set up in Hlukhiv in 1738 and students were taught to sing and play violin and bandura from manuscripts. As a result, many of the earliest composers and performers within the Russian empire were ethnically Ukrainian, having been born or educated in Hlukhiv or having been closely associated with this music school.[390] Ukrainian classical music differs considerably depending on whether the composer was of Ukrainian ethnicity living in Ukraine, a composer of non-Ukrainian ethnicity who was a citizen of Ukraine, or part of the Ukrainian diaspora.[391]
Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced pop music has been growing in popularity in Ukraine. Folk singer and harmonium player
Media
The Ukrainian legal framework on media freedom is deemed "among the most progressive in eastern Europe", although implementation has been uneven.
On 10 March 2024, creators of a documentary film 20 Days in Mariupol were awarded with the Oscar in the category "Best Documentary Feature Film", the first Oscar in Ukraine's history.[397]
Sport
Ukraine greatly benefited from the Soviet emphasis on physical education. These policies left Ukraine with hundreds of stadia, swimming pools, gymnasia and many other athletic facilities.[398] The most popular sport is football. The top professional league is the Vyscha Liha ("premier league").
Many Ukrainians also played for the
Ukrainian
Sergey Bubka held the record in the Pole vault from 1993 to 2014; with great strength, speed and gymnastic abilities, he was voted the world's best athlete on several occasions.[402][403]
Cuisine
The traditional Ukrainian diet includes chicken, pork, beef, fish and mushrooms. Ukrainians also tend to eat a lot of potatoes; grains; and fresh, boiled or pickled vegetables. Popular traditional dishes
Ukrainians drink stewed fruit compote, juices, milk, ryazhanka, mineral water, tea and coffee, beer, wine and horilka.[407]
See also
Notes
- ^ /juːˈkreɪn/ ⓘ yoo-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, romanized: Ukrayina, pronounced [ʊkrɐˈjinɐ] ⓘ
- ^ Ukraine also has a battlefront to its southeast with territory annexed from it by Russia.
- ^ Partly controlled by the unrecognised breakaway state Transnistria.
- ^ The Ukrainian territories on the Sea of Azov have been occupied and annexed by Russia in 2022, but the annexation has been condemned by the international community.
- ^ ethnicUkrainians, from the Ukrainian SSR.
- POWdeaths.
- ^ Such writings were also the base for Russian and Belarusian literature.
References
- ^ "Law of Ukraine "On ensuring the functioning of Ukrainian as the state language": The status of Ukrainian and minority languages". 20 October 2020.
- ^ a b "Population by ethnic nationality, 1 January, year". ukrcensus.gov.ua. Ukrainian Office of Statistics. Archived from the original on 17 December 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
- Razumkov Center in collaboration with the All-Ukrainian Council of Churches, 22 April 2018, pp. 12, 13, 16, 31, archived(PDF) from the original on 26 April 2018
Sample of 2,018 respondents aged 18 years and over, interviewed 23–28 March 2018 in all regions of Ukraine except Crimea and the occupied territories of the Donetsk and Luhansk regions. - ^ "Ukraine". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 23 March 2022.
- ISBN 978-981-334-203-3. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
- ^ a b c d e "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Ukraine)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
- ^ "GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Ukraine". data.worldbank.org. World Bank. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
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Reference books
- Encyclopedia of Ukraine (University of Toronto Press, 1984–1993) 5 vol; partial online version, from Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies
- Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia Vol.1 ed by Volodymyr E. KubijovyC; University of Toronto Press. 1963; 1188pp
Recent (since 1991)
- Aslund, Anders, and Michael McFaul. Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough (2006)
- Birch, Sarah. Elections and Democratization in Ukraine Macmillan, 2000 online edition
- Edwards Mike: "Ukraine – Running on empty" National Geographic MagazineMarch 1993
- ISBN 978-3-89821-558-9
- Kuzio, Taras: Contemporary Ukraine: Dynamics of Post-Soviet Transformation, M.E. Sharpe, 1998, ISBN 0-7656-0224-5
- Kuzio, Taras. Ukraine: State and Nation Building, Routledge, 1998 online edition
- Shamshur O. V., Ishevskaya T. I., Multilingual education as a factor of inter-ethnic relations: the case of the Ukraine, in Language Education for Intercultural Communication, by D. E. Ager, George Muskens, Sue Wright, Multilingual Matters, 1993, ISBN 1-85359-204-8
- Shen, Raphael (1996). Ukraine's Economic Reform: Obstacles, Errors, Lessons. Praeger/Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-275-95240-2.
- Whitmore, Sarah. State Building in Ukraine: The Ukrainian Parliament, 1990–2003 Routledge, 2004 online edition
- Wilson, Andrew, Ukraine's Orange Revolution (2005)
- Wilson, Andrew, The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation, 2nd ed. 2002;
- Wilson, Andrew, Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s: A Minority Faith, ISBN 0-521-57457-9
- Zon, Hans van. The Political Economy of Independent Ukraine. 2000 online edition
History
- UKRAINIAN UPPER PALAEOLITHIC BETWEEN 40/10.000 BP
- Bilinsky, Yaroslav The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II (Rutgers University Press, 1964) online Archived 7 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Hrushevsky, Michael. A History of Ukraine (1986)
- Katchanovski Ivan; Kohut, Zenon E.; Nebesio, Bohdan Y.; and Yurkevich, Myroslav. Historical Dictionary of Ukraine. Second Edition. Scarecrow Press, 2013. 968 pp.
- Kononenko, Konstantyn. Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654–1917 (Marquette University Press 1958) online Archived 7 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Luckyj, George S. Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995. (1996)
- ISBN 0-8020-7820-6
- Reid, Anna. Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine (2003) online edition
- ISBN 0-8020-8390-0.
- Yekelchyk, Serhy. Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation (Oxford University Press 2007) online Archived 7 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
World War II
- Boshyk, Yuri (1986). Ukraine During World War II: History and Its Aftermath. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. ISBN 978-0-920862-37-7.
- Berkhoff, Karel C. Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule. Harvard U. Press, 2004. 448 pp.
- Cliff, Tony (1984). Class Struggle and Women's Liberation. Bookmarks. ISBN 978-0-906224-12-0.
- Gross, Jan T. Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (1988).
- Lower, Wendy. Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine. U. of North Carolina Press, 2005. 307 pp.
- Piotrowski Tadeusz, Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947, McFarland & Company, 1998, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3.
- Redlich, Shimon. Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919–1945. Indiana U. Press, 2002. 202 pp.
- Zabarko, Boris, ed. Holocaust in the Ukraine, Mitchell Vallentine & Co, 2005. 394 pp.
External links
- Ukraine information from the United States Department of State
- Key Development Forecasts for Ukraine from International Futures
- Encyclopedia of Ukraine
- Government
- Economy
- World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Ukraine
- Ukraine Corruption Profile from the Risk & Compliance Portal
- Demographics