Science
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Science is a
The
The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th centuries revived natural philosophy,[18][19][20] which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century[21] as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions.[22][23] The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape,[24][25] along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science".[26]
New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.
Etymology
The word science has been used in Middle English since the 14th century in the sense of "the state of knowing". The word was borrowed from the Anglo-Norman language as the suffix -cience, which was borrowed from the Latin word scientia, meaning "knowledge, awareness, understanding", a noun derivative of sciens meaning "knowing", itself the present active participle of sciō, "to know".[32]
There are many hypotheses for science's ultimate word origin. According to
In the past, science was a synonym for "knowledge" or "study", in keeping with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called a "natural philosopher" or "man of science".[34] In 1834, William Whewell introduced the term scientist in a review of Mary Somerville's book On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences,[35] crediting it to "some ingenious gentleman" (possibly himself).[36]
History
Early history

Science has no single origin. Rather, scientific thinking emerged gradually over the course of tens of thousands of years,[37][38] taking different forms around the world, and few details are known about the very earliest developments. Women likely played a central role in prehistoric science,[39] as did religious rituals.[40] Some scholars use the term "protoscience" to label activities in the past that resemble modern science in some but not all features;[41][42][43] however, this label has also been criticised as denigrating,[44] or too suggestive of presentism, thinking about those activities only in relation to modern categories.[45]
Direct evidence for scientific processes becomes clearer with the advent of
The ancient
Classical antiquity

In
The early
A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was Socrates' example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general commonly-held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinises them for consistency.[64] Socrates criticised the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism.[65]
In the 4th century BCE,
Positional notation for representing numbers likely emerged between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE along Indian trade routes. This numeral system made efficient arithmetic operations more accessible and would eventually become standard for mathematics worldwide.[74]
Middle Ages
Due to the
During
Islamic study of
By the 11th century, most of Europe had become Christian,[13]: 204 and in 1088, the University of Bologna emerged as the first university in Europe.[86] As such, demand for Latin translation of ancient and scientific texts grew,[13]: 204 a major contributor to the Renaissance of the 12th century. Renaissance scholasticism in western Europe flourished, with experiments done by observing, describing, and classifying subjects in nature.[87] In the 13th century, medical teachers and students at Bologna began opening human bodies, leading to the first anatomy textbook based on human dissection by Mondino de Luzzi.[88]
Renaissance

New developments in optics played a role in the inception of the
In the 16th century,
The
Age of Enlightenment

At the start of the
During this time the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in the materialistic sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In Bacon's words, "the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime or pleasing [speculation]".[99]
Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by
The 18th century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine[104] and physics;[105] the development of biological taxonomy by Carl Linnaeus;[106] a new understanding of magnetism and electricity;[107] and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline.[108] Ideas on human nature, society, and economics evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed A Treatise of Human Nature, which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.[109] Modern sociology largely originated from this movement.[110] In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, which is often considered the first work on modern economics.[111]
19th century

During the 19th century, many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences; the frequent use of precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist", "physicist", and "scientist"; an increased professionalisation of those studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions of society; the industrialisation of numerous countries; the thriving of popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals.[112] During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879.[113]
During the mid-19th century
Early in the 19th century
The
20th century
In the first half of the century the development of
During this period scientific experimentation became increasingly larger in scale and funding.[127] The extensive technological innovation stimulated by World War I, World War II, and the Cold War led to competitions between global powers, such as the Space Race and nuclear arms race.[128][129] Substantial international collaborations were also made, despite armed conflicts.[130]
In the late 20th century active recruitment of women and elimination of
The century saw fundamental changes within science disciplines. Evolution became a unified theory in the early 20th-century when the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics.[134] Albert Einstein's theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics complement classical mechanics to describe physics in extreme length, time and gravity.[135][136] Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including smartphones. The need for mass systematisation of long, intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields of systems theory and computer-assisted scientific modelling.[137]
21st century
The
Branches
Modern science is commonly divided into three major
Natural science
Social science

Formal science
Applied science
Computational science applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of machine learning and artificial intelligence is becoming a central feature of computational contributions to science, for example in agent-based computational economics, random forests, topic modeling and various forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform against humans.[170][171]
Interdisciplinary science
Scientific research
Scientific research can be labelled as either basic or applied research.
Scientific method

Scientific research involves using the
In the scientific method an explanatory
When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory it is modified or discarded. If the hypothesis survives testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a
While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another.
Scientific literature

Scientific research is published in a range of literature.
Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a
Challenges
The
An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as
There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of scientific debates. Sometimes, research may be characterised as "bad science", research that may be well-intended but is incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term "scientific misconduct" refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.[200]
Philosophy of science
There are different schools of thought in the
Empiricism has stood in contrast to
Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasises the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific theories as black boxes, with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to be things that should be ignored.[207] Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.[208]
Another approach often cited in debates of
Scientific community
The scientific community is a network of interacting scientists who conduct scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.[213]
Scientists

Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.
Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions. Women have faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they have in other areas of male-dominated societies. For example, women were frequently passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work.
Learned societies

The professionalisation of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of national distinguished
Awards
Science awards are usually given to individuals or organisations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions; thus, it is considered a great honour for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists have often been awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry.[233]
Society
Funding and policies

Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research, such as the
Education and awareness
The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a
Anti-science attitudes
While the scientific method is broadly accepted in the scientific community, some fractions of society reject certain scientific positions or are sceptical about science. Examples are the common notion that COVID-19 is not a major health threat to the US (held by 39% of Americans in August 2021)[252] or the belief that climate change is not a major threat to the US (also held by 40% of Americans, in late 2019 and early 2020).[253] Psychologists have pointed to four factors driving rejection of scientific results:[254]
- Scientific authorities are sometimes seen as inexpert, untrustworthy, or biased.
- Some marginalised social groups hold anti-science attitudes, in part because these groups have often been exploited in unethical experiments.[255]
- Messages from scientists may contradict deeply held existing beliefs or morals.
- The delivery of a scientific message may not be appropriately targeted to a recipient's learning style.
Anti-science attitudes often seem to be caused by fear of rejection in social groups. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22% of Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the left.[256] That is, if someone on the left would not consider climate change as a threat, this person may face contempt and be rejected in that social group. In fact, people may rather deny a scientifically accepted fact than lose or jeopardise their social status.[257]
Politics
See also
- Criticism of science
- List of scientific occupations
- List of years in science
- Logology (science)
- Science (Wikiversity)
- Scientific integrity
Notes
- ^ Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics Book I, [6.54]. pages 372 and 408 disputed Claudius Ptolemy's extramission theory of vision; "Hence, the extramission of [visual] rays is superfluous and useless". —A.Mark Smith's translation of the Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham.[82]: Book I, [6.54]. pp. 372, 408
- ^ Whether the universe is closed or open, or the shape of the universe, is an open question. The 2nd law of thermodynamics,[118]: 9 [119] and the 3rd law of thermodynamics[120] imply the heat death of the universe if the universe is a closed system, but not necessarily for an expanding universe.
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