Science

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Science is a

social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies.[4][5] The formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study formal systems governed by axioms and rules,[6][7] are sometimes described as being sciences as well; however, they are often regarded as a separate field because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method or empirical evidence as their main methodology.[8][9] Applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine.[10][11][12]

The

physical world based on natural causes, while further advancements, including the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, were made during the Golden Age of India.[13]: 12 [14][15][16] Scientific research deteriorated in these regions after the fall of the Western Roman Empire during the Early Middle Ages (400–1000 CE), but in the Medieval renaissances (Carolingian Renaissance, Ottonian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century) scholarship flourished again. Some Greek manuscripts lost in Western Europe were preserved and expanded upon in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age,[17] along with the later efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe at the start of the Renaissance
.

The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th centuries revived natural philosophy,[18][19][20] which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century[21] as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions.[22][23] The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape,[24][25] along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science".[26]

New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.

research institutions,[29] government agencies,[30] and companies.[31] The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritising the ethical and moral development of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and environmental protection
.

Etymology

The word science has been used in Middle English since the 14th century in the sense of "the state of knowing". The word was borrowed from the Anglo-Norman language as the suffix -cience, which was borrowed from the Latin word scientia, meaning "knowledge, awareness, understanding", a noun derivative of sciens meaning "knowing", itself the present active participle of sciō, "to know".[32]

There are many hypotheses for science's ultimate word origin. According to

Indo-Europeanist, sciō may have its origin in the Proto-Italic language as *skije- or *skijo- meaning "to know", which may originate from Proto-Indo-European language as *skh1-ie, *skh1-io, meaning "to incise". The Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben proposed sciō is a back-formation of nescīre, meaning "to not know, be unfamiliar with", which may derive from Proto-Indo-European *sekH- in Latin secāre, or *skh2-, from *sḱʰeh2(i)- meaning "to cut".[33]

In the past, science was a synonym for "knowledge" or "study", in keeping with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called a "natural philosopher" or "man of science".[34] In 1834, William Whewell introduced the term scientist in a review of Mary Somerville's book On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences,[35] crediting it to "some ingenious gentleman" (possibly himself).[36]

History

Early history

Clay tablet with markings, three columns for numbers and one for ordinals
The Plimpton 322 tablet by the Babylonians records Pythagorean triples, written c. 1800 BCE

Science has no single origin. Rather, scientific thinking emerged gradually over the course of tens of thousands of years,[37][38] taking different forms around the world, and few details are known about the very earliest developments. Women likely played a central role in prehistoric science,[39] as did religious rituals.[40] Some scholars use the term "protoscience" to label activities in the past that resemble modern science in some but not all features;[41][42][43] however, this label has also been criticised as denigrating,[44] or too suggestive of presentism, thinking about those activities only in relation to modern categories.[45]

Direct evidence for scientific processes becomes clearer with the advent of

writing systems in the Bronze Age civilisations of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE), creating the earliest written records in the history of science.[13]: 12–15 [14] Although the words and concepts of "science" and "nature" were not part of the conceptual landscape at the time, the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians made contributions that would later find a place in Greek and medieval science: mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.[46][13]: 12  From the 3rd millennium BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a non-positional decimal numbering system,[47] solved practical problems using geometry,[48] and developed a calendar.[49] Their healing therapies involved drug treatments and the supernatural, such as prayers, incantations, and rituals.[13]
: 9 

The ancient

intense interest in medicine and the earliest medical prescriptions appeared in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur.[50][52] They seem to have studied scientific subjects which had practical or religious applications and had little interest in satisfying curiosity.[50]

Classical antiquity

Framed mosaic of philosophers gathering around and conversing
Plato's Academy mosaic, made between 100 BCE and 79 CE, shows many Greek philosophers and scholars

In

pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows,[54] and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention".[55]

The early

A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was Socrates' example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general commonly-held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinises them for consistency.[64] Socrates criticised the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism.[65]

In the 4th century BCE,

Archimedes of Syracuse made major contributions to the beginnings of calculus.[70] Pliny the Elder was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal encyclopaedia Natural History.[71][72][73]

Positional notation for representing numbers likely emerged between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE along Indian trade routes. This numeral system made efficient arithmetic operations more accessible and would eventually become standard for mathematics worldwide.[74]

Middle Ages

peacock
, made in the 6th century

Due to the

collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the 5th century saw an intellectual decline, with knowledge of classical Greek conceptions of the world deteriorating in Western Europe.[13]: 194  Latin encyclopaedists of the period such as Isidore of Seville preserved the majority of general ancient knowledge.[75] In contrast, because the Byzantine Empire resisted attacks from invaders, they were able to preserve and improve prior learning.[13]: 159  John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the 6th century, started to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus.[13]: 307, 311, 363, 402  His criticism served as an inspiration to medieval scholars and Galileo Galilei, who extensively cited his works ten centuries later.[13]: 307–308 [76]

During

Monophysites. Under the Abbasids, these Arabic translations were later improved and developed by Arabic scientists.[78] By the 6th and 7th centuries, the neighbouring Sasanian Empire established the medical Academy of Gondishapur, which was considered by Greek, Syriac, and Persian physicians as the most important medical hub of the ancient world.[79]

Islamic study of

Mongol invasions in the 13th century. Ibn al-Haytham, better known as Alhazen, used controlled experiments in his optical study.[a][83][84] Avicenna's compilation of The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopaedia, is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and was used until the 18th century.[85]

By the 11th century, most of Europe had become Christian,[13]: 204  and in 1088, the University of Bologna emerged as the first university in Europe.[86] As such, demand for Latin translation of ancient and scientific texts grew,[13]: 204  a major contributor to the Renaissance of the 12th century. Renaissance scholasticism in western Europe flourished, with experiments done by observing, describing, and classifying subjects in nature.[87] In the 13th century, medical teachers and students at Bologna began opening human bodies, leading to the first anatomy textbook based on human dissection by Mondino de Luzzi.[88]

Renaissance

Drawing of planets' orbit around the Sun
Drawing of the heliocentric model as proposed by the Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

New developments in optics played a role in the inception of the

exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance. This theory uses only three of Aristotle's four causes: formal, material, and final.[89]

In the 16th century,

heliocentric model of the Solar System, stating that the planets revolve around the Sun, instead of the geocentric model where the planets and the Sun revolve around the Earth. This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.[90]

Galileo had made significant contributions to astronomy, physics and engineering. However, he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII sentenced him for writing about the heliocentric model.[93]

The

laws of nature and the improvement of all human life.[95] Descartes emphasised individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used to study nature.[96]

Age of Enlightenment

Title page of the 1687 first edition of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton

At the start of the

teleological way. This implied a shift in the view of objects: objects were now considered as having no innate goals. Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes.[98]

During this time the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in the materialistic sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In Bacon's words, "the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime or pleasing [speculation]".[99]

Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by

Kepler, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides to every physical and social field of the day.[102][103]

The 18th century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine[104] and physics;[105] the development of biological taxonomy by Carl Linnaeus;[106] a new understanding of magnetism and electricity;[107] and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline.[108] Ideas on human nature, society, and economics evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed A Treatise of Human Nature, which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.[109] Modern sociology largely originated from this movement.[110] In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, which is often considered the first work on modern economics.[111]

19th century

Sketch of a map with captions
The first diagram of an evolutionary tree made by Charles Darwin in 1837

During the 19th century, many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences; the frequent use of precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist", "physicist", and "scientist"; an increased professionalisation of those studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions of society; the industrialisation of numerous countries; the thriving of popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals.[112] During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879.[113]

During the mid-19th century

Experiments on Plant Hybridisation" in 1865,[115] which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.[116]

Early in the 19th century

conservation of momentum and conservation of mass suggested a highly stable universe where there could be little loss of resources. However, with the advent of the steam engine and the Industrial Revolution there was an increased understanding that not all forms of energy have the same energy qualities, the ease of conversion to useful work or to another form of energy.[118] This realisation led to the development of the laws of thermodynamics, in which the free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining: the entropy of a closed universe increases over time.[b]

The

radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie in 1896,[121] Marie Curie then became the first person to win two Nobel Prizes.[122] In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the electron.[123]

20th century

ozone hole
made in 1987 using data from a space telescope

In the first half of the century the development of

artificial fertilisers improved human living standards globally.[124][125] Harmful environmental issues such as ozone depletion, ocean acidification, eutrophication, and climate change came to the public's attention and caused the onset of environmental studies.[126]

During this period scientific experimentation became increasingly larger in scale and funding.[127] The extensive technological innovation stimulated by World War I, World War II, and the Cold War led to competitions between global powers, such as the Space Race and nuclear arms race.[128][129] Substantial international collaborations were also made, despite armed conflicts.[130]

In the late 20th century active recruitment of women and elimination of

sex discrimination greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remained in some fields.[131] The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964[132] led to a rejection of the steady-state model of the universe in favour of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.[133]

The century saw fundamental changes within science disciplines. Evolution became a unified theory in the early 20th-century when the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics.[134] Albert Einstein's theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics complement classical mechanics to describe physics in extreme length, time and gravity.[135][136] Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including smartphones. The need for mass systematisation of long, intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields of systems theory and computer-assisted scientific modelling.[137]

21st century

M87* black hole made by separate teams in the Event Horizon Telescope
collaboration.

The

Branches

Modern science is commonly divided into three major

empirical sciences,[145] as their knowledge is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.[146]

Natural science

Descartes, Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches that were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.[147] Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and other biotic beings.[148] Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.[149]

Social science

Two curve crossing over at a point, forming a X shape
Supply and demand curve in economics, crossing over at the optimal equilibrium

case studies, and cross-cultural studies. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes.[4]

Formal science

Applied science

basic sciences, which are focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict events in the natural world.[168][169]

Computational science applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of machine learning and artificial intelligence is becoming a central feature of computational contributions to science, for example in agent-based computational economics, random forests, topic modeling and various forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform against humans.[170][171]

Interdisciplinary science

Interdisciplinary science involves the combination of two or more disciplines into one,[172] such as bioinformatics, a combination of biology and computer science[173] or cognitive sciences. The concept has existed since the ancient Greek period and it became popular again in the 20th century.[174]

Scientific research

Scientific research can be labelled as either basic or applied research.

applied research is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Most understanding comes from basic research, though sometimes applied research targets specific practical problems. This leads to technological advances that were not previously imaginable.[175]

Scientific method

6 steps of the scientific method in a loop
A diagram variant of scientific method represented as an ongoing process

Scientific research involves using the

measurements.[177] Statistics is used to summarise and analyse data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results.[178]

In the scientific method an explanatory

correlation fallacy, though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might be more appropriate.[181]

When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory it is modified or discarded. If the hypothesis survives testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a

validly reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behaviour of certain natural events. A theory typically describes the behaviour of much broader sets of observations than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus, a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. Scientists may generate a model, an attempt to describe or depict an observation in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation, and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested by experimentation.[182]

While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another.

experimental design, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results and conclusions.[185][186] After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.[187] Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimising the effects of subjective and confirmation bias.[188] Intersubjective verifiability, the ability to reach a consensus and reproduce results, is fundamental to the creation of all scientific knowledge.[189]

Scientific literature

Decorated "NATURE" as title, with scientific text below
Cover of the first issue of Nature, 4 November 1869

Scientific research is published in a range of literature.

Philosophical Transactions, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500.[191]

Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a

scientific paper. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider population.[192]

Challenges

The

life sciences. In subsequent investigations, the results of many scientific studies have been proven to be unrepeatable.[193] The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s[194] as part of a growing awareness of the problem. The replication crisis represents an important body of research in metascience, which aims to improve the quality of all scientific research while reducing waste.[195]

An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as

cargo cult science" for cases in which researchers believe, and at a glance, look like they are doing science but lack the honesty to allow their results to be rigorously evaluated.[198] Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories. Science has been described as "the most important tool" for separating valid claims from invalid ones.[199]

There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of scientific debates. Sometimes, research may be characterised as "bad science", research that may be well-intended but is incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term "scientific misconduct" refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.[200]

Philosophy of science

epicycles in Ptolemaic astronomy was "normal science" within a paradigm, whereas the Copernican Revolution
was a paradigm shift

There are different schools of thought in the

Empiricism has stood in contrast to

Descartes, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation.[203] Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories, and that the only way theory A can be affected by observation is after theory A were to conflict with observation, but theory B were to survive the observation.[204]
Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method.[204] Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism, trial and error,[205] covering all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.[206]

Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasises the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific theories as black boxes, with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to be things that should be ignored.[207] Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.[208]

logically consistent "portrait" of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. He characterised normal science as the process of observation and "puzzle solving", which takes place within a paradigm, whereas revolutionary science occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a paradigm shift.[209] Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more "portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of relativism.[210]

Another approach often cited in debates of

empirical study and independent verification.[212]

Scientific community

The scientific community is a network of interacting scientists who conduct scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.[213]

Scientists

Portrait of a middle-aged woman
Marie Curie was the first person to be awarded two Nobel Prizes: Physics in 1903 and Chemistry in 1911[122]

Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.

nonprofit organisations.[217][218][219]

Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions. Women have faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they have in other areas of male-dominated societies. For example, women were frequently passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work.

Learned societies

Picture of scientists in 200th anniversary of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, 1900

professional bodies
, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest, or the collective interest of the membership.

The professionalisation of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of national distinguished

international cooperation for science advancement.[232]

Awards

Science awards are usually given to individuals or organisations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions; thus, it is considered a great honour for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists have often been awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry.[233]

Society

Funding and policies

see caption
Budget of NASA as percentage of United States federal budget, peaking at 4.4% in 1966 and slowly declining since

developed countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP.[234] In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10%, respectively, by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and the humanities. In less developed nations, the government provides the bulk of the funds for their basic scientific research.[235]

Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research, such as the

National Centre for Scientific Research in France,[239] the Max Planck Society in Germany,[240] and National Research Council in Spain.[241] In commercial research and development, all but the most research-orientated corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities than research driven by curiosity.[242]

capital equipment and intellectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing tax incentives to those organisations that fund research.[192]

Education and awareness

Dinosaur exhibit in the Houston Museum of Natural Science

formal education, the curriculum becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements include social and applied science as well.[245]

The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a

beat reporters who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.[247][248]

Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.[249] The science fiction genre, primarily speculative fiction, can transmit the ideas and methods of science to the general public.[250] Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines, such as literature or poetry, include the Creative Writing Science resource developed through the Royal Literary Fund.[251]

Anti-science attitudes

While the scientific method is broadly accepted in the scientific community, some fractions of society reject certain scientific positions or are sceptical about science. Examples are the common notion that COVID-19 is not a major health threat to the US (held by 39% of Americans in August 2021)[252] or the belief that climate change is not a major threat to the US (also held by 40% of Americans, in late 2019 and early 2020).[253] Psychologists have pointed to four factors driving rejection of scientific results:[254]

Anti-science attitudes often seem to be caused by fear of rejection in social groups. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22% of Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the left.[256] That is, if someone on the left would not consider climate change as a threat, this person may face contempt and be rejected in that social group. In fact, people may rather deny a scientifically accepted fact than lose or jeopardise their social status.[257]

Politics

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics Book I, [6.54]. pages 372 and 408 disputed Claudius Ptolemy's extramission theory of vision; "Hence, the extramission of [visual] rays is superfluous and useless". —A.Mark Smith's translation of the Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham.[82]: Book I, [6.54]. pp. 372, 408 
  2. ^ Whether the universe is closed or open, or the shape of the universe, is an open question. The 2nd law of thermodynamics,[118]: 9 [119] and the 3rd law of thermodynamics[120] imply the heat death of the universe if the universe is a closed system, but not necessarily for an expanding universe.

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