Ecology of fear
The ecology of fear is a conceptual framework describing the psychological impact that predator-induced stress experienced by animals has on populations and ecosystems. Within ecology, the impact of predators has been traditionally viewed as limited to the animals that they directly kill, while the ecology of fear advances evidence that predators may have a far more substantial impact on the individuals that they predate, reducing fecundity, survival and population sizes.[1][2] To avoid being killed, animals that are preyed upon will employ anti-predator defenses which aid survival but may carry substantial costs.[1]
History
The concept was coined in the 1999 paper "The Ecology of Fear: Optimal Foraging, Game Theory, and Trophic Interactions",[3] which argued that "a predator [...] depletes a food patch [...] by frightening prey rather than by actually killing prey."[4]
In the 2000s, the ecology of fear gained attention after researchers identified an impact of the reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone on the regrowth of aspen and willows because of a substantial reduction in the numbers of elk in the park through killing. Some studies also indicated that the wolves affected the grazing intensity and patterns of the elk because they felt less secure when feeding.[2] Critics have put forward alternative explanations for the regrowth, other than the wolf reintroduction.[2][5]
The consideration of wolves as a
A 2010 study found that sharks, like wolves, may have the capacity to create an ecology of fear in the ecosystems which they inhabit.[6] In 2012, a study indicated that the ecology of fear may also be applicable to parasites, with evidence suggesting that animals abandon feeding both because of predator and parasite avoidance.[7]
Some critics of the concept argue that the "cognitive and emotional aspects of avoiding predation remain unknown" and that this is true for "virtually all studies of 'the ecology of fear'".[8]
Analogous research has been applied to host-parasite and host-pathogen interactions based on the ecology of fear.[9][10] This research is alternatively called the "ecology of disgust".[11]
Landscape of fear
The landscape of fear is a model based on the ecology of fear, which asserts that the behaviour of animals that are preyed upon is shaped by psychological maps of their geographical surroundings which accounts for the risk of predation in certain areas.[12][13]
Relationship to post-traumatic stress disorder
A 2011 paper described how exposure to predators as life-threatening psychological stressors is used in
In 2019, a study identified lasting effects on behavior and PTSD-like changes in the brains of wild animals caused by fear-inducing interactions with predators.[15]
Human impact
Studies have found that the fear of humans can have substantial impacts on animal behaviour,
See also
- Predator-prey dynamics– Equations modelling predator–prey cycles
- Wild animal suffering – Suffering of animals living outside direct human control
References
- ^ S2CID 145049061.
- ^ a b c d Robbins, Jim (2017-04-11). "The Fear Factor: How the Peril of Predators Can Transform a Landscape". Yale E360. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
- ISSN 1045-2249.
- JSTOR 1383287.
- ^ a b Ostlind, Emilene; Wade, Dave (2014-01-06). "The ecology of fear: Elk responses to wolves in Yellowstone are not what we thought". Western Confluence. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
- S2CID 10320877.
- S2CID 19569658.
- PMID 19617549.
- S2CID 220253177.
- PMID 33622122.
- S2CID 44133972.
- .
- ^ Yong, Ed (2016-02-23). "Nothing to Fear Except Fear Itself—Also Wolves and Bears". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
- PMID 21629856.
- PMID 31391473.
- ISSN 1045-2249.
- ^ Gross, Liza (2017-07-11). "How Fear of Humans Can Ripple Through Food Webs and Reshape Landscapes". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
- .
Further reading
- Zanette, Liana Y.; Clinchy, Michael (2020-11-02). "Ecology and Neurobiology of Fear in Free-Living Wildlife". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 51 (1): 297–318. S2CID 228836698.
- Evans Ogden, Lesley (2020-10-08). "Being eaten: The fear of becoming a meal is a powerful evolutionary force that shapes brains, behaviour and entire ecosystems". Aeon. Retrieved 2021-03-10.