Enderta Province
Enderta or Inderta (
Notable Bea'al gadas included the mighty Ras Robel, grandfather of Emperor Sertse-Dengel as well as the paternal ancestor of Ras Suhul Mikael, Ras Faris the great, Ras Woldeselassie the great and Ras Araya Dimtsu, maternal uncle of Emperor Yohaness.[citation needed]
Historically, the province of Enderta had been ruled by its own hereditary governors, at least, since the restoration of the solomonic dynasty in 1270.
Capital
History
Early history
After the fall of the Axumite empire some time in the late 9th century AD, the center of economical as well as political power shifted to the south, while the many provinces in the north were governed by the Tigray Mekonen based in Enderta.
To consolidate his control in the region, Amda Seyon established a military colony of non Tigrayan troops at Amba Senayata, the center of the rebellion, and appointed his queen consort, Bilén Saba, as governor of Enderta, along with a new batch of officials below her. The Queen ruled indirectly however, which caused unrest in the province as the population heavily resented Amhara rule. This induced the Emperor to appoint one of his sons, Bahr Seged, as governor, who was later in 1328 also given control of the maritime provinces under the title of Ma'ikele Bahr ("Between the Rivers/Seas").[13]
Enderta appears on indigenous maps of the northern Horn of Africa in the 15th century.[14][15]
Notable men of Enderta of the 16th century
Abeto Rubel (Ras) and Bea'al gada, native of Selewea-Enderta, appointed as Tigray Mekkonen during the time of Emperor Minase (he was killed at Sambera Kware, 7 March 1529) he had a son, Abeto Aram Hedug, who is the father of Abeto Labasi, who fathered Abeto Wolde Hawaryat, who fathered Abeto Hezeqeyas [Isqias], who fathered H.H. Ra'asa ra'usan Mikael Sehul Isqias, Prince (Mesfin) of Tigray (s/o Ishate Mariam) 1748-1771 &1772-1779 H.H. Ra'asa ra'usan Mikael Sehul Isqias, Prince (Mesfin) of Tigray. b. ca. 1691, son of Abeto Hezeqeyas [Isqias] Wolde Hawaryot, by his wife, Woizero Ishate Mariam, daughter of Azzaz Yakub, educ. privately. A descendant of the mighty Ras Robel and Ras Faris the Great. Blattengeta to the Tigray Mekkonen, Ras Amda Haymanot, ca. 1720. Appointed as Dejazmatch of Tigray 20 September 1748 and of Semien 8 October 1757. Raised to the title of Ras and confirmed as Governor of Tigray, Semien, Seggada, Walqat and 44 other governments, 13 September 1759. Established his capital at Adowa. Invested as Ras Bitwodad and Enderase (Viceroy) of the Empire 22 January 1768. He died on 23 June 1779.[citation needed]
Zemene Mesafint
By the
The two fought many battles but Ras Gebra Meskel was on the losing side; this prompted Wolde Selassie to head for Gondar to claim the governorship of Enderta. When he petitioned the Emperor Tekle Giorgis for that office, the Emperor however, gave the position to Ras Gebra Meskel instead; this angered Wolde Selassie, and he soon quickly marched forth with a small army against Gebra Meskel. He defeated his troops, then entered Gebra Meskel's camp and took him prisoner. Wolde Selassie, after effectively clearing the way for the highest office for himself, headed back to Gondar and placed his claim to the throne. The two Emperors, Tekle Haymanot and Tekle Giyorgis, bestowed Wolde Selassie the titles of both Ras and
The family of Dejazmach Kefla Yessous and Wolde Selassie were of distinguished origin, and came from Antalo, in Enderta, of which place they were chiefs. His wives included Mentwab (died in 1812 from smallpox), the sister of Emperor Egwale Seyon; and Sahin, the daughter of Emperor Tekle Giyorgis.
Wolde Selassie made his seat of government in
According to Paul Henze, Ras Wolde Selassie was the first ruler of this period to have close contact with Europeans, hosting three British diplomats, George Annesley, Viscount Valentia, his secretary Henry Salt, and Pearce. Salt's arrival in Abyssinia culminated in the signing of a treaty of friendship with Wolde Selassie representing Abyssinia and the former representing Great Britain in 1805. Henry Salt also proposed inaugurating trade with Britain; Wolde Selassie was quick to see possible advantages in relations with Britain and promised to encourage such commerce with every means in his power. Revealing himself a realist, and speaking, Salt says, with 'great sincerity', he nevertheless expressed the fear that his country:
might not be able to supply any quantity of valuable commodities sufficient to recompense our merchants for engaging in so precarious a trade; more especially as the Abyssinians were not much acquainted with commercial transactions...Could any plan, however, be arranged for obviating these difficulties...he would most readily concur in carrying it into effect.
Wolde Selassie also touched on a major obstacle that the Abyssinians had faced, the Egyptians had control over the port of Massawa which they acquired from the Ottoman Empire and reminded King George that with their "naval superiority in the red sea" Abyssinia might find it difficult to gain access to the port.[22] Wolde Selassie's effort, however, did bear fruit in the long term when his successors Dejazmatch Wube of Semien and Tigray and Emperor Yohanness of Ethiopia followed up on the treaty that was struck between him and the kingdom of Britain.
Nathaniel Pearce lived with Ras Wolde from about 1808 and the warlord's death. Pearce's diary of his stay is not only valuable for the history of this period, but also provides enormous detail about daily life in Ethiopia.[23]
At the effort of Ras Wolde Selassie, Abyssinia received its bishop from Egypt at around 1816: Abuna Qerellos III (1816–1828) who made his residence in Antalo. Henry Salt who was one of the three British diplomats who visited Abyssinia both in 1805 and in 1810 was hosted by Ras Wolde Selassie at his residence in Antalo; he writes, "Ras Wolde Selassie ruled Abyssinia with firmness and a vigor of constitution that united the different ethnic groups of Abyssinia. When ever I have seen him in the exercise of his power, he has shown a vivacity of expression, a quickness comprehension, and a sort of commanding energy, that overawed all who approached him".[24] Another British envoy, Mansfield Parkyns, adds, "Wolde Selassie reigned for twenty-five years, and during this long period obtained and maintained for himself the character of a good and wise prince".[25] The Great Ras Wolde Selassie died at an advanced age in 1816 at his residence in Antalo, Enderta due to natural causes. His death was universally mourned.
The end of Zemene Mesafint
With the rise of
The rise of Yohannes IV
Born into the family of the lords of Enderta and Tembien,
Yohannes' successive struggles against foreign invaders, Egyptian, Dervis and Italian, left him moreover with little time for technological or other innovation. He nevertheless succeeded, in sending envoys on important diplomatic missions abroad. Yohannes was like wise the first Ethiopian ruler to appoint a foreign consul, a certain Samuel King, who served as his representative in London. Advancement in the medical field introduced mercury preparations for the treatment of syphilis came into extensive use at this time, at least in the principal Ethiopian towns. Yohannes also had in his court a Greek doctor, Nicholas Parisis. He was similarly the first Ethiopian monarch to be inoculated with modern-style smallpox vaccine, which was then beginning to replace the country's traditional inoculation.[28]
Notable men of Enderta of the 18th-19th century AD
- Dejazmatch Weldo, hereditary chief of Enderta 1720–1747
- Dejazmatch Kefla Iyasus son of Amda Mikael, hereditary Chief of Enderta 1747–1773.
- Ras Wolde Selaassie Kefla Iyasus. Hereditary Chief of Enderta, b. Antalo (Hintalo), Enderta, 1736. The second son of Dejazmatch Kefla Iyasus, Governor of Endarta 1788–1790. Became ruler of Tigray, Gondar and most of the Mareb-Melash(Eritrea) from 1790 to 1816.
- Dejazmatch Debbab Kefla Iyasus, from Felegdaro-Enderta. Appointed as Kagnazmatch, 24 March 1799.
- Dejazmatch Blatengeta Mennasse Kifeleysous.
- Dejazmatch Gabre Mikael Sahlu, son of Shum sahlu (nephew of Ras Wolde Selassie Kefla Iyasus) Shum Temben 1814–1815, Governor of Semien 1815–1816, and Lieutenant-Governor of Tigray 1816–1822. Granted the title of Dejazmatch before 24 May 1815.
- Dejazmatch Wolde Rufael Debbab, second son of Dejazmatch Debbab Kefla Iyasus, Succeeded his paternal uncle (Ras Wolde Sellassie Kefla Iyasus) as ruler of Tigray, under the regency of Dejazmatch Gabre Mikael of Temben from 1816 to 1818.
- Dejazmatch Haile Mariam Gabre. son of Woizero Shlitu, daughter of Dejazmatch Kefla Iyasus of Enderta, Kagnazmatch 1811. Governor of Walqayt 1811–1812, and of Semien 1815–1826.
- Dejazmatch Dimtsu Debbab, grandfather of Emperor Yohaness IV and son of Dejazmatch Debbab Kifleyesous of Enderta. Hereditary Chief of Enderta, died in 1817.
- Ras Araya Dimtsu, b. Egrihariba, Enderta, in 1810. Son of Dejazmatch Dimtsu Debbab of Endarta and maternal unckle of Emperor Yohannes IV (through Ras Araya Dimtsu's sister Amate Sellassie Dimtsu). Succeeded his father, Dejazmach Dimtsu Debbaba as hereditary chief of Enderta. Governor of Tigray 1855–1863, imprisoned at Magdala 1863–1868, Chief crown Councillor to Emperor Yohaness 1868–1889 and a foremost and a distinguished statesman in Yohanese's government who was second to the Emperor only. An influential governor of Akale Guzay province of Mereb Milash (Eritrea) throughout the 1870s and 1880s. He was killed defending Emperor Yohannese's baggage train from the Mahdists, at Metemma, 11 March 1889.
- Emperor Yohannes IV, King of Seyon (Zion), King of Kings of Ethiopia. b. 11 July 1837, as Lij Kassa Mirtcha, Younger son of Dejazmatch Mirtcha Wolde Kidane, Shum Temben, by his wife, Woizero Amata Selassie of Chelekot-Enderta (daughter of Dejazmatch Dimtsu Debbab of Enderta the nephew of the powerful Ras Woldeselassie of Enderta). Fought and defeated Emperor Takla Giyorgis II at Assem (Adwa) and proclaimed as Emperor Yohannes IV, at Axum, 11 July 1871. Crowned at the Cathedral of St Mary of Zion, Axum, 21 January 1872 (the last Emperor to be crowned there), Emperor of Ethiopia, 1872–1889.
- Ras Bitwoded Gebremeskel Tsadik b. Qata, Enderta, A distinguished statesman, served as the right-hand man of Emperor Yohaness in government affairs, law, administration and diplomacy for the kingdom of Ethiopia as an Enderassie from 1872 to 1889. Ras Bitweded Gebremeskel died along with Ras Araya Dimtsu defending Emperor Yohannese's baggage train from the Mahdists, at Metemma, 11 March 1889.
- Ras Bitwoded Gabre Kidane Zammu, b. Hintalo, Enderta, son of Blattangeta Zammu of Hintalo Enderta. A distinughsed warrior, he commanded the Ethiopian army and defeated the Egyptians and Ottoman Turks at the battle of Quatit in 1884. A great politician, he was raised to the personal titles of Blattangata by Emperor Yohannes IV, and later promoted to Ras Bitwodad in 1872. Prime Minister of the Ethiopian empire 1872–1889. He is the husband of Empress Dinkinesh Mirtcha, the sister of Emperor Yohaness by whom he had three children including Dejazmach Seyoum Gebrekidan. He died in 1895 at Harar, Ethiopia.
- Negus Araya Selassie, born before September 1867. Son of Yohannes IV, King of Seyun, educ. privately. Raised to the title of Ras 1872. Granted the kingdom of Tigray with the title of Negus as his dowry, by his father in October 1882. Confirmed as Heir Apparent by his father, June 1884. Governor of Enderta 1872–1882, Governor-General of Wollo 1882–1886, and of Begamber and Dembiya 1886–1888.
- Le'ul Ras Seyum Mangasha, Prince of Tigray, b. 24 June 1897, only son of Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Prince of Tigray, educated privately. Field Marshal 1934, Governor-General of Tigray 1906–1921 and of Western Tigray 1921–1936.
- le'ul Ras Gugsa Araya Selassie. born in 1886. Son of Negus Araya Selassie, King of Tigray. Governor of Eastern Tigray (Mekelle) 1921–1933.
Woyane Rebellion
In an Imperial determination to weaken the power of the regional nobles and elites of Ethiopia, the Haile Selassie government in 1941 introduces a new regional administration. The law or edict provides for fourteen provinces (Teklay gizat), around 100 counties (Awrajas), and 600 districts (Woredas).[29] Therefore, curbing the power of the hundreds of nobles and their provinces throughout the Empire. This then enabled Haile Selassie to centralize his authority and in effect rendered these nobles with their administrations dependent to the central government. Historians agree that "the basic policy of Haile Selassie was a centralizing one continuing the tradition of the great centralizing Emperors from 1855 onwards."[30] The provision reduced the many provinces of Tigray into eight counties: Raya Azebo, Enderta, Tembien, Kilete Awla'lo, Agame, Adowa, Axum and Shire along with many districts under each of the counties' jurisdictions. After the liberation of Ethiopia from Italian occupation in 1941, Ethiopia saw many rebellions spread out in different parts of the empire. Among these rebellions however, the "Woyane Rebellion" in southern and eastern Tigray in 1943 had become a powerful and highly popular uprising that, within a few months it had shaken the government of Haile Selassie to its core and as a consequence, the Imperial government resorted in using aerial bombardment by collaborating with the British Royal Air Force so as to quell the rebellion. The woyane uprising in Tigray seems to have arisen when administrative corruption and greed ignited a situation of existing instability and insecurity, one awash with weaponry in the wake of the Italian defeat.[31]
The rebellion
In 1943, open resistance broke out all over southern and eastern Tigray under the slogan, "there is no government; let's organize and govern ourselves.", Raya awraja, Kilete-Awlaelo awraja and Tembien awraja, local assemblies, called gerreb, were immediately formed. The gerreb sent representatives to a central congress, called the shengo, which elected leadership and established military command system.
The rebels established their headquarters at Wokro. During the rainy season of 1943 the rebels under the leadership of Fitawrari Yeebio Woldai and Dejazmach Neguise Bezabih, hailing from Enderta,[33] which was the heart of the woyane rebellion,[34] were busy organizing their forces; and after celebrating the Ethiopian New Year on 12 September, they went on the besieged government garrison at Quiha. The highly equipped government forces were to meet with the poorly equipped but determined rebels for the first time in the rebels' stronghold district of Didiba Dergiajen, Enderta in the village of Sergien; the rebels under the leadership of Fitawrari Yeebio Woldai (Wedi Weldai) and Dej. Neguisie Bezabih defeated the government forces decisively; they captured countless modern weapons that helped them attract many peasants to join the rebellion; and many government soldiers deserted and joined the rebellion. In the month of September 1943, on the government's second offensive in the village of Ara, also in Enderta, the woyane rebels under Wedi Weldai scored yet a second victory over the heavily armed government forces; this time, the rebels captured high level feudal chiefs including and killed many prominent Tigray and Amhara war lords that sided with the Emperor Haile Selassie's government. The rebels under Bashay Gugsa Mengesha also captured General Essyas and many of his commanders and imperial soldiers at Quiha. The rebel forces estimated at 20,000, moved eastward from Quiha to Enda Yesus, a fort overlooking the provincial capital, Mekelle. They captured the fort and then took Mekelle. The representatives of Haile Selassie's government fled. The woyanti issued a proclamation to the inhabitants of Mekelle which stated, inter alia:
"Our governor is Jesus Christ...
And our flag that of Ethiopia.
Our religion is that of Yohannes IV.
People of Tigray, follow the motto of Weyane."
The Pan Ethiopian nature of Woyanne
The slogans of the first Woyanne were clearly Pan Ethiopian and for equality and autonomy. Their proclamation after liberating Mekelle had five main points.
- Reduced tax
- Local leadership to collect tax
- Appointment of one's own leaders free of domination.
- Eradication of thieves and bandits (shiftas)
- Objection to payment of excessive taxation and payment to appointee of the Emperor
A similar victory was achieved by the rebels under the leadership of one of the top leaders of the woyane movement namely
Notable men of Enderta of the 20th century AD
- Dejazmatch Hailu Araya (Son of Ras Araya dimtsu of Enderta). Governor of Enderta and Denkel-Afar and a longtime Bea'al Gada (title assumed by Enderta governors who administered the salt making districts of Denkel)
- Dejazmatch Tadla Araya [Abba Guben] (son of Ras Araya dimtsu of Enderta). A distinguished warrior and a Hero of the battle of Adwa who commanded the Endertan army at Mariam Shewito in Adwa against the Italians in 1896 and led his Endertan army to victory.
- Dejazmach Abraha Araya, 1872–1917, (Son of Ras Araya dimtsu of Enderta) a distinguished warrior and a notable contender to the overlordship of Tigray, governor of Raya Azebo, Enderta, Tembien and Kilete-awlalo, 1902–1909. Minister of the interior, 1911–1917. He built a magnificent palace at Mekelle "Abraha Castle"
- Le'ul Ras Mangasha Seyum. b. Dengolat, Enderta 7 December 1927. Son of Le'ul Ras Seyum Mengesha. Governor of Arussi 1952–1955, and Sidamo 1955–1958, Minister for Public Works 1958–1961. Recognised as hereditary Prince of Tigray after the death of his father, January 1961. Went into exile 1974. Founder and President Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU).
- Dejazmach Maru Aram, from Enderta, Tigary. Governor of Enderta and Tembien in the 1940s. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Dejazmatch Atsebeha Tessema, from Saharti/Samre-Enderta. Governor of Selawa and Saharti. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Dejazmatch Alemayohu Habtu, from Enderta, Tigray. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Dejazmatch Teferi Aba Bula, from Enderta, Tigray. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Dejazmatch Beyene Woreta, from Enderta, Tigray. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Fitawrari Bisue Weldejiworgis, from Saharti-Enderta, Tigary. Governor of Saharti, an Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Fitawrari Hadgu Bogale, from Enderta, Tigray. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Fitawrari Alemayouh, from Enderta, Tigray. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Dejazmatch Liben, from Enderta, Tigray. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Fitawrari Eyasu Atsebaha, from Mekelle-Enderta, Tigray. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Gerazmach Abera Kebede Deress, from Mekelle-Enderta, Tigray. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Gerazmach Abebe Woldegiorgis, from Enderta, Tigray. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Fitawrari Assegu Seyufu, from Enderta, Tigary. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Kegnazmach Ambaye Fiseha, from Enderta, Tigary. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Fitwarari Berhe Engeda, from Enderta, Tigary. An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Girazmatch Gebru Gebremesqel from Gembela/Gerealta-Enderta. A long time Negedras of Tigray throughout the 1920s, '30s and '40s.
- Girazmatch Berhe Kassa, from Da'mesqel/Mekelle-Enderta. A long time governor of Berahley, Reged, Arho and dallul in Denkel and Parliamentarian of Enderta awraja in the 1960s.
- Fitawrari Yeebio Woldai (Wedi Weldai), b. Samre-Enderta, Tigray. Chief leader and commander of the 1943 woyane rebellion in Tigray. He is also an Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom.
- Dejazamtch Bezabih Negusse (Wedi Mebrek), b. Da' Meskel-Mekelle, Enderta, Tigray. Top leader and commander of the 1943 woyane rebellion in Tigray. He is also an Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom. He was imprisoned by Italian occupying forces and was later freed by Ethiopian patriots in 1941.
- Bashay Gugsa Mengesha, b. Adi-seleste, Hintalo-Enderta, Tigray. Top leader and commander of the 1943 woyane rebellion in Tigray.[42]
- Blata Hailemariam Reda, b. Dandera-Enderta, Tigray. Commander of the 1943 woyane rebellion in Tigray.
- Lieutenant General Tadesse Werede Tesfay. from Enderta, born in 1958 in Mekelle-Enderta, Tigray, Head of the Joint Training Department and Army Corps Commander, Ethiopian National Defense Force, Commander, United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei, from 2011 to 2013. A veteran in the Ethiopian National Defense Force, holding various high-ranking positions from 1991 to 2014.
- Ato Gebru Asrat. b. Mekelle-Enderta, Tigray. Governor of Tigray region, 1991–2001.
Kagnazmatch Hadgu Tedela An Ethiopian patriot who fought against colonial fascist Italy from 1935 to 1941 for independence and freedom see Feodor Kon0valo "The battle of Tembien"
Democratic tradition in Enderta
Tradition holds that seventy elders are elected from each local administration (ገረብ) of Enderta to serve as mediators and peace-makers among the inhabitants of the many districts (woredas) of Enderta in case of rivalries, uprising and disputes that might arise within Enderta (Erqi Enderta, as it is still called in Tigray). These seventy elders were also bestowed provincial authority by the governor of the province to legally represent Enderta and its people in a provincial level with neighboring districts, counties and provinces. This is a form of old age democratic process through which elected and assigned elders are representing their constituency in social, political, and governmental affairs within the empire of Ethiopia. In a communal or individual level, individual Endertans enjoyed self representation within the district, county and even the provincial level; in Enderta, jural independence included the right to claim farmland and to represent oneself in community councils and in court. In a household level, Endertans had a strong ethos of individualism and that households were more political than kin units, with non-kin recruited on a contractual basis for their labor. Important to this ethos of individualism was a man's construction of a Hidmo as a material statement of his ambition to be someone of consequence in his community,[43] an ambition that could not be expressed through an inherited house which was (and often still is) destroyed.[44] Within villages and major towns throughout Enderta during the monarchy time, many individuals became 'big men' by accumulating great wealth and acquiring a following of poorer households that were dependent for food and oxen, a debt repaid with labor and loyalty.[45]
Woredas
Enderta's historical
- Meqele
- Kwiha
- Gabat Melash – Hentalo
- Wenberta – Maimekden
- Bora-Selewa – Dala
- Saharti – Gijet
- GereAlta – TsigeReda
- Waereb – Samre
- Wajerat – Debub
- Denkel, Shekhet
Notes
- ^ Salt, A Voyage to Abyssinia, p. 379
- ^ Ethiopian Mapping Authority, 1997
- ^ ed. by Svein Ege, Harald Aspen, Birhanu Teferra and Shiferaw Bekele, Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, Trondheim 2009, 185
- ^ Tsegay B.Gebrelibanos, The Ethiopian Salt Trading System in the 20th Century: A View from Mäqäla, Northern Ethiopia
- ^ a b Roland Oliver, the Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 to c. 1790, p. 132.
- ^ a b Taddesse, "Church and State", p. 73
- ^ a b c Taddesse, Church and State, p. 73.
- ^ a b J.D. Fage, The cambridge history of Africa from c. 1050 to c. 1600, p. 125.
- ^ a b c Mansfield Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia, vol. 2, p. 93.
- ^ R.A. Caulk, Bad men of the Borders: Shum and Shifta in North Ethiopia in the 19th century, Book 2nd Annual Seminar of Department of history, PART 1,pg 41
- ^ Richard M. Trivelli, Afrika spectrum 33(1998) 3: p. 259.
- ^ Mantel-Niećko and Nosnitsin, "Amdä ṣeyon I" in von Uhlig, Encyclopaedia.
- ^ a b c Taddesse Church and State, p. 74.
- ^ Nyssen, J., Tesfaalem Ghebreyohannes, Hailemariam Meaza, Dondeyne, S., 2020. Exploration of a medieval African map (Aksum, Ethiopia) – How do historical maps fit with topography? In: De Ryck, M., Nyssen, J., Van Acker, K., Van Roy, W., Liber Amicorum: Philippe De Maeyer In Kaart. Wachtebeke (Belgium): University Press: 165-178.
- ^ Smidt W (2003) Cartography, in: Uhlig S (ed.): Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, vol. 1: 688-691
- ^ a b Henry Salt, A voyage to Abyssinia, p. 252
- ^ Salt, A Voyage to Abyssinia, p. 253
- ^ Pankhurst, History, p. 201f.
- ^ Mordechai Abir, Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes; The Challenge of Islam and the Re-unification of the Christian Empire (1769–1855) (London: Longmans, 1968), p. 31
- ^ Harold G. Marcus, A history of Ethiopia (University of California press: 2002), p. 53
- ^ Salt, A Voyage to Abyssinia, p. 109
- ^ Salt H., A Voyage to Abyssinia (London, 1814)
- ^ Paul B. Henze, Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia (New York: Palgrave, 2000), p. 122
- ^ Salt, A voyage to Abyssinia, p. 255
- ^ Mansfield Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia, vol. 2, p. 109.
- ^ Pankhurst, The Ethiopians A History, p. 163
- ^ Wylde, Modern Abyssinia, p. 43
- ^ Pankhurst, The Ethiopians A History, p. 176
- ^ Sarah Vaughan, "Ethnicity and Power in Ethiopia", PhD dissertation, p. 123, 2003
- ^ Clapham, Christopher, Transformation and continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia, Cambridge University press, p. 27, 1988.
- ^ Sarah Vaughan, "Ethnicity and Power", p. 126.
- ^ Household and Society in Ethiopia, African studies center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michi., 1977.
- ^ Mamoka Maki, The wayyane in Tigray and the reconstruction of the Ethiopia government in the 1940s, In: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, ed. by Svein Ege, Harald Aspen, Birhanu Teferra and Shiferaw Bekele, Trondheim 2009, p. 5.
- ^ Mamoka Maki, The wayyane in Tigray and the reconstruction of the Ethiopia government in the 1940s, In: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, ed. by Svein Ege, Harald Aspen, Birhanu Teferra and Shiferaw Bekele, Trondheim 2009, p. 6.
- ^ a b Rebels and Separatists in Ethiopia, Regional Resistance to a Marxist Regime by Paul Henze, Rand corporation-- prepared for the office of the under secretary of defense for policy, p. 42, December 1985.
- ^ Blata Hailemariam Reda, Wegahta Magazine, Nos. 1, 2, and 4, 1993.
- ^ Gilkes, The dying lion, p. 180.
- ^ Haggain Erlich "British involvement and Haile Selassie's emerging absolution northern Ethiopia, 1941–1943", Asian and African studies 15, 2 (1981), p. 219.
- ^ a b c Mamoka Maki, The wayyane in Tigray and the reconstruction of the Ethiopia government in the 1940s, In: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, ed. by Svein Ege, Harald Aspen, Birhanu Teferra and Shiferaw Bekele, Trondheim 2009, p. 8.
- ^ Gebru Tareke, Ethiopia: Power and Protest, p. 121.
- ^ Gebru Tareke, Ethiopia: Power and Protest, p. 122.
- ^ Mamoka Maki, The wayyane in Tigray and the reconstruction of the Ethiopia government in the 1940s, In: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, ed. by Svein Ege, Harald Aspen, Birhanu Teferra and Shiferaw Bekele, Trondheim 2009 , p. 5.
- ^ Bauer, D. For want of an Ox...: Land, capital, and social stratification in Tigre. In Marcus Harold. G. (ed), Proceedings of the First United States Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, pp. 235–248, 1975 & 1977.
- ^ Bauer, D. Household and Society in Ethiopia, Occasional Papers No. 6, African Studies Centre, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michi.,1977.
- ^ Lyons Diane, Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, p. 188, Vol. 14. No. 2, June 2007.