Fungal extracellular enzyme activity
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Birch_Polypore_%28Piptoporus_betulinus%29_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1553987.jpg/220px-Birch_Polypore_%28Piptoporus_betulinus%29_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1553987.jpg)
Extracellular
Plant residues, animals and microorganisms enter the dead
Biopolymers are structurally complex and require the combined actions of a community of diverse microorganisms and their secreted exoenzymes to depolymerize the polysaccharides into easily assimilable
Factors influencing extracellular enzyme activity
Extracellular enzyme production supplements the direct uptake of nutrients by microorganisms and is linked to nutrient availability and environmental conditions. The varied chemical structure of
Enzyme production and secretion is an energy intensive process
Environmental conditions such as
Extracellular enzyme activity in fungi during plant decomposition
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Plant_cell_showing_primary_and_secondary_wall_by_CarolineDahl.jpg/220px-Plant_cell_showing_primary_and_secondary_wall_by_CarolineDahl.jpg)
Most of the extracellular enzymes involved in polymer degradation in leaf litter and soil have been ascribed to fungi.[25][26][27] By adapting their metabolism to the availability of varying amounts of carbon and nitrogen in the environment, fungi produce a mixture of oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes to efficiently break down lignocelluloses like wood. During plant litter degradation, cellulose and other labile substrates are degraded first[28] followed by lignin depolymerization with increased oxidative enzyme activity and shifts in microbial community composition.
In plant cell walls, cellulose and hemicellulose is embedded in a pectin scaffold
Most efficient wood degraders are
In white-rot fungi such as
Brown-rot basidiomycetes are most commonly found in coniferous forests, and are so named because they degrade wood to leave a brown residue that crumbles easily. Preferentially attacking hemicellulose in wood, followed by cellulose, these fungi leave lignin largely untouched.[40] The decayed wood of soft-rot Ascomycetes is brown and soft. One soft-rot Ascomycete, Trichoderma reesei, is used extensively in industrial applications as a source for cellulases and hemicellulases.[41] Laccase activity has been documented in T. reesei, in some species in the Aspergillus genus[42] and in freshwater ascomycetes.[43]
Measuring fungal extracellular enzyme activity in soil, plant litter, and other environmental samples
Methods for estimating soil enzyme activities involve sample harvesting prior to analysis, mixing of samples with buffers and the use of substrate. Results can be influenced by: sample transport from field-site, storage methods, pH conditions for assay, substrate concentrations, temperature at which the assay is run, sample mixing and preparation.[44]
For hydrolytic enzymes, colorimetric assays are required that use a
Oxidative enzymes such as phenol oxidase and peroxidase mediate lignin degradation and humification.[47] Phenol oxidase activity is quantified by oxidation of L-3, 4-dihydoxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA), pyrogallol (1, 2, 3-trihydroxybenzene), or ABTS (2, 2’-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid). Peroxidase activity is measured by running the phenol oxidase assay concurrently with another assay with L-DOPA and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) added to every sample.[48] The difference in measurements between the two assays is indicative of peroxidase activity. Enzyme assays typically apply proxies that reveal exo-acting activities of enzymes. Exo-acting enzymes hydrolyze substrates from the terminal position. While activity of endo-acting enzymes which break down polymers midchain need to be represented by other substrate proxies. New enzyme assays aim to capture the diversity of enzymes and assess the potential activity of them in a more clear way.[49][50][51]
With newer technologies available, molecular methods to quantify abundance of enzyme-coding genes are used to link enzymes with their producers in soil environments.
Process | Enzyme | Substrate |
---|---|---|
Cellulose-degradation | Cellobiohydrolase
β-glucosidase |
pNP, MUF[33][56] |
Hemicellulose-degradation | β-glucosidases
Esterases |
pNP, MUF[57][58] |
Polysaccharide-degradation | α-glucosidases
N-acetylglucosaminidase |
pNP, MUF[59] |
Lignin-degradation | Mn-peroxidase
Laccase (polyphenol oxidase) Peroxidase |
Pyrogallol, L-DOPA, ABTS[38]
L-DOPA, ABTS[39] |
Applications of fungal extracellular enzymes
Application | Enzymes & their uses |
---|---|
Paper production | Cellulases – improve paper quality and smooth fibers[60]
Laccases – soften paper and improving bleaching[61] |
Biofuel generation | Cellulases – for production of renewable liquid fuels[62] |
Dairy industry | Lactase – part of β-glucosidase family of enzymes and can break down lactose to glucose and galactose
Pectinases – in the manufacture of yogurt |
Brewing industry
![]() |
Beer production and malting[63] |
Fruit and jam manufacturing | Pectinases, cellulases – to clarify fruit juices and form jams |
Bioremediation | Laccases – as biotransformers to remove nonionic |
Waste water treatment | Peroxidases - removal of pollutants by precipitation[66][67] |
Sludge treatment | Lipases - used in degradation of particulate organic matter[68] |
Phytopathogen management | Hydrolytic enzymes produced by fungi, e.g. Fusarium graminearum, pathogen on cereal grains resulting in economic losses in agriculture [69] |
Resource management
Water retention |
Soil aggregates and water infiltration influence enzyme activity[70][71] |
Soil fertility and plant production | Use of enzyme activity as indicator of soil quality[71][72] |
Composting | Impacts of composting municipal solid waste on soil microbial activity[10] |
Soil organic matter stability | Impact of temperature and soil respiration on enzymatic activity and its effect on soil fertility[73] |
Climate change indicators
Impact on soil processes |
Potential increase in enzymatic activity leading to elevated CO2 emissions[74] |
Quantifying global warming outcomes |
Predictions based on soil organic matter decomposition[75] and strategies for mitigation[76] |
Impact of elevated CO2 on enzyme activity & decomposition | Understanding the implication of microbial responses and its impact on terrestrial ecosystem functioning[77] |
See also
References
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Further reading
- Enzyme nomenclature
- Reactions and enzymes
- Richard P. Dick (ed.) 2011. Methods in Soil Enzymology. Soil Science Society of America, Wisconsin, USA ISBN 978-0-89118-854-4
External links
- ExplorEnz- searchable enzyme database to access the IUBMB Enzyme Nomenclature List
- BRENDA – database and related literature of known enzymes
- Enzyme structures
- ExPASy database for sequence data
- KEGG: Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes biochemical pathways and enzymes database
- MycoCLAP searchable database of fungal enzyme genes
- MetaCyc metabolic pathways of different organisms
- Pectinase Archived 2019-09-15 at the Wayback Machine database for pectinase enzymes and their inhibitors