History of Houston
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The city of
Investment and development of railroads serving Houston increased the transportation options for freight and passengers while greatly increasing the number of jobs. The city limits extended to an area north of
The population surpassed 58,000 in 1900, the same year as the Great Hurricane struck Galveston. Within a few years, oil companies were establishing offices in Houston to administer oil fields in East Texas. In 1912, the Rice Institute opened its doors on its suburban campus, the first institute of higher learning in the Houston area. Several tall buildings were completed that year, including those used for offices and residences. Tax Commissioner Joseph Jay Pastoriza gained national notoriety for his property tax reform, though it was later invalidated by the Texas Supreme Court. Around this time Houston started drawing immigrants from Mexico, a trend continuing into the 1920s. Many settled in the Second Ward. During this period, the city developed Hermann Park. Houston gained national prominence when it hosted the Democratic National Convention in 1928.
Before 1836
The region known as Houston is located on land that was once home of the Karankawa (kə rang′kə wä′,-wô′,-wə) and the Atakapa (əˈtɑːkəpə) indigenous peoples for at least 2,000 years before the first known settlers arrived.[1][2] However, the land remained largely uninhabited until settlement in the 1830s.[3][4]
Republic of Texas, 1836–1845
On the heels of the
The Allen brothers chose a site at the confluence of White Oak Bayou and Buffalo Bayou, which served as a natural turning basin, now known as Allen's Landing.[8] The Laura, the first steamship ever to visit Houston, arrived in January 1837, at which time the town totaled twelve residents and one log cabin. Four months later there were 1,500 people and 100 houses.[9] Critical to the promotion of Houston by the Allen brothers was the importance of its location as a natural logistical center. They claimed that the town lay at the "head of navigation" on Buffalo Bayou. Their critics cast doubt on the navigability of Buffalo Bayou as far upstream as Houston, who had not been convinced by the arrival of the Laura. A true test would be a larger ship making the trip.[10] The Allen brothers commissioned the 262-ton Constitution to travel to Houston. Captain Edward Auld piloted the large, deep-draft steamer to the wharf at the foot of Main Street, and earned $1,000 for performing this task. However, the Constitution—measuring at 150 feet—was too long to make the three point turn using the mouth of White Oak Bayou. Unable to turn the ship around at Houston, Auld ran the engines in reverse for over six miles until he found a natural turning basin.[11] The Allen brothers published an announcement of the Constitution's feat with the headline, "The Fact Proven."[12]
In May 1837, the
The original municipal government structure was a mayor and eight aldermen, all elected at large. Two charter amendments, one in 1839 and the other in 1840, divided the town into four
Serious violence was a daily occurrence in the late-1830s. In addition to assault via a gentleman's cane, street violence emanated from Houston's many saloons and brothels.[16] When Mexico was again threatening Texas, President Sam Houston moved the capital to Houston on June 27, 1842. However, the Austin residents wanted to keep the archives in their city. This would be known as the Archive Wars. The capital was then moved to Washington on-the-Brazos on September 29. Austin became capital again in 1845, just before Texas gained statehood.[17]
Early statehood, 1845–1861
In the early statehood era, historian Harold Platt notes the emergence of "commercial-civic elites," a term borrowed from Blaine A. Brownell. Commercial leaders blurred sharp distinctions between economic activity and social relationships. One example was the business partnership of
During Houston's first few years, it had many characteristics of a frontier town. Though this trend briefly reversed, the demographics of Houston's free population regressed toward those of a frontier town again during the 1850s. The imbalance in population favoring males increased, the median age was greater than the US at-large, and these males were less likely to be married. The number of young men quadrupled from 1850 to 1860, but the total population merely doubled during the same period. In 1850, Houston had 115 males for every hundred females, and this ratio increased to 136 per hundred by 1860. Saloons and gambling halls proliferated and were well attended, and violence was common. One in three Houstonians were born abroad, many coming from German-speaking countries.[19]: 254–258 More than one of every five Houstonians during this period was an enslaved person.[20][21] Though the percentage of bondsmen in Houston was comparable to those of other southern cities, there was a lower proportion of slaveowners. The practice of "hiring out" enslaved persons was common in Houston at the eve of the American Civil War. Houston's total population grew to 4,428 by 1860, and its footprint expanded to the southwest by several blocks, reaching to a part of current-day Hadley Street.[22] Urban bondsmen performed manual labor, such as construction, or moving freight at the wharf or to and from the warehouses; others worked as servants at private homes and hotels, or as cooks and waiters.[23]
Railroads started to emanate from Houston in the 1850s. However, the first railroad to operate in Texas was the
American Civil War, 1861–1865
In 1860, most Houstonians supported John C. Breckinridge, the Southern Democratic candidate for president. As the American Civil War began, there was tension between supporters of the Confederacy and the few Union sympathizers. There are no voting tallies for Houston and there are inconsistencies in the records of the secession vote, yet, Harris County voted heavily in favor of secession on February 23, 1861, by a margin as high as seven-to-one. The Chamber of Commerce kept the city together during the conflict.[27][28]
Houston was an important regional center during the Confederacy. The town served as a military logistics center, the Quartermaster Depot for Texas, and the headquarters of a wartime administrative district which included Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. An influx of refugees from Louisiana and Galveston nearly doubled Houston's wartime population compared to 1860. Since the town suffered no direct attacks, it was prosperous compared to many other communities in the South. Though some key merchants like William Marsh Rice left at the start of the war, businessmen from New Orleans and Galveston replaced them. Blockade runners sometimes used Houston as a port, and on occasion the Main Street wharf received foreign cargo.[29] Despite disruptions to supply from the Union blockades, advertisements indicate at least occasional availability of staples, such as sugar, coffee, and soap; clothing, including pants, shirts, and footwear; and building supplies, like brick, and even milled pine.[30] However, the supply of goods was not consistent, and there were periodic shortages of some staples, causing hyperflation and the need to find substitute goods, such as flavoring hot drinks with okra seeds in place of coffee. Specie was in short supply throughout the war. Housing scarcity caused rents to rise, but wages increased at the same time.[31]
Post-Civil War, 1866–1900
Reconstruction
The end of the American Civil War and news of emancipation spurred an influx of former slaves from the countryside into Houston. The town's incumbent black residents organized groups to help these newcomers obtain housing and employment. In the short term, however, many of these new citizens resided in abandoned buildings and tent communities.[32]
Houston added the Fifth Ward in 1866, and the Sixth Ward in 1877.[15] Each ward was represented by two aldermen, though by 1870, local representation was unequal based on population of the respective wards. The Fourth Ward counted 3,055 residents, contrasted with the First Ward with only 738 residents. The city did not adjust the ward boundaries to compensate for these unequal settlement patterns.[33]
In 1869, the Ship Channel Company was formed to deepen Buffalo Bayou and improve Houston as a shipping port. Despite the postwar social unrest, migrants flocked to Texas for new opportunities. Texas businessmen joined to expand the railroad network, which contributed to Houston's primacy in the state and the development of Dallas, Fort Worth, San Antonio and El Paso.[34][page needed]
After Texas was readmitted to the Union on April 16, 1870, Houston continued its growth. Houston was designated as an official
Houston was the site of the first
Gilded Age
Houston continued its rapid population growth which started in the 1860s. Houston, like many other cities, attracted many Americans seeking job opportunities. In 1870, Houston counted 9,382 residents and grew by rates of 77 percent, 67 percent, and 62 percent in the following three decades. The percentage of foreign-born Houstonians declined from 17 percent in 1870 to 11 percent in 1890, but the percentage of African-American residents held steady.[37]
Lumber became a large part of the port's exports, with merchandise as its chief import. The
According to the
Progressive era, 1901–1928
On September 8, the
Around 1910, large numbers of Mexican immigrants settled in the "Segundo Barrio" (Second Ward), near industrial jobs for railroads and manufacturers of supplies for railroads. The Rusk Settlement House and El Campo Laurel lodge were two Second Ward organizations serving the emerging Mexican community in Houston. The Archdiocese of Galveston dispatched a missionary to the area, and later this initiative evolved into the Lady of Guadalupe Church. Several Protestant churches in the area followed. Revolution in Mexico the same year changed the immigration dynamic. In some cases, war induced Mexican-Houstonians to return to their native country to join the fight or assist family, but as the war dragged on, immigration from Mexico to Houston increased, mostly from the northern states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and San Luis Potosí. Civil unrest in Mexico persisted into the 1920s, promoting continued immigration and the development of a robust Mexican-American community in Houston.[43]
In 1912,
In 1912, Houston established its first institution of higher learning. The Rice Institute, now Rice University, opened with an endowment of around $9 million. The board hired Edgar Odell Lovett as the school's first president, who recruited Julian Huxley as a professor of biology and Harold Wilson as a professor of physics.[45]
By 1912, Houston was home to twenty-five "tall buildings" ranging from six to sixteen stories. Office buildings extant in 1912 include the eleven-story Scanlan Building, the marble-clad South Texas National Bank Building, the eight-story
In early 1917 the
During the 1920s, the city of Houston developed Hermann Park based in part on plans by Arthur Comey and George Kessler on land donated by George H. Hermann in 1922. The Houston Zoological Garden opened on the park grounds two years later. The park complex expanded with the construction of Museum of Natural History and a full-size golf course. Several smaller buildings were also added, as well as several curving roads to provide automobile access through the grounds. Will Hogg donated another large tract for an expansion to the park.[48]
Houston hosted the 1928 Democratic National Convention. The city council and Mayor Oscar Holcombe appropriated $100,000 for a new convention hall. They commissioned Kenneth Franzheim and Alfred C. Finn for design and construction management of the new hall. After condemning and demolishing some houses to clear the site, Sam Houston Hall was complete within four months. The city expected 25,000 conventioneers, and the new facility was larger than Madison Square Garden. Houston spent another $100,000 for beautification, mainly with planting of gardens and trees at various public buildings and public parks. With only around 5,000 hotel rooms to lodge visitors, several hotels broke ground. Furthermore, the city organized many improvised accommodations, including campgrounds, makeshift dormitories, and converted railcars.[49]
Great Depression, 1929–1941
In May 1929, a flood caused millions of damage to Houston property.[50]
Houston's population in 1930 was 292,352. Despite the stock market crash, Houston was still building. The Sterling Building was one of a dozen skyscrapers completed in 1930. Yet unemployment was still high and a cause for concern to Mayor Walter Monteith. Modernization of downtown continued in 1931 as two old buildings were razed: The Hotel Brazos and an old house built in 1841 came down at Louisiana and Prairie.[50] Petroleum dominated the landscape of the Houston Ship Channel, not cotton. More dredging east of Harrisburg and new docks at the Turning Basin added to the port's infrastructure. Several local roads were paved around this time. Air travel expanded as new passenger service began from Houston to Atlanta. Despite this economic activity, signs of the Depression included auction sales of four major downtown buildings. In December 1935, floods struck the city, causing over $1 million in property damage and killed as many as six people. Houston and the State of Texas celebrated their centennials in 1936.[51]
Jesse H. Jones led a group of local bankers in 1931 to pool their resources in order to save the weaker banks. This was not enough to prevent the worst part of the Great Depression in 1932 and early 1933, when building activity in the private sector decreased. Federal funding from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation and the Works Progress Administration facilitated major construction projects in the mid-1930s, including assistance for a new Houston City Hall and Lamar High School. Houston International Airport expanded commercial and passenger facilities during the 1930s, while Braniff, Eastern, and Southern airlines all offered regular service by 1941.[52]
World War II, 1941–1945
When
1950s–1960s
The
In the year 1960, Houston International Airport was deemed inadequate for the needs of the city. This airport could not be expanded, so Houston Intercontinental Airport (now
In April 1965 the
Barbara Jordan was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives by Houston residents on November 8, 1966.
1970s and integration
In the 1970s, the Chinese American community in Houston, which had been relatively small, started growing at a rapid rate.
The Sharpstown scandal, which concerned government bribes involving real estate developer Frank Sharp (neighborhood of Sharpstown is named after him) occurred in 1970 and 1971.
One Shell Plaza and Two Shell Plaza were completed in 1971. One Shell Plaza was the tallest building west of the Mississippi River.
Because the Houston Independent School District was slow to desegregate public schools, on June 1, 1970, the Federal officials struck the HISD plan down and forced it to adopt zoning laws. This was 16 years after the landmark Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education, which determined that segregated schools were inherently unequal. Racial tensions over integration of the schools continued. Some Hispanic Americans felt they were being discriminated against when they were being put with only African-Americans as part of the desegregation plan, so many took their children out of the schools and put them in huelgas, or protest schools, until a ruling in 1973 satisfied their demands.
The
Water pollution of the Houston Ship Channel became notorious in 1972. Work on the Texas Commerce Tower, now the JPMorgan Chase Tower, began in 1979.
The late 1970s saw a population boom thanks to the
The city made changes in higher education. The Houston Community College system was established in 1972 by HISD. In 1977, the University of Houston celebrated its 50th anniversary as the Texas Legislature established the University of Houston System—a state system of higher education that includes and governs four universities. In 1976, Howard Hughes, at one time the world's richest man, died on his jet heading to Houston. He was born in Humble, Texas, the home of what is now ExxonMobil.
1980s–1990s
In 1981,
Houston's massive population boom was reversed when
The year 1990 saw the opening of Houston Intercontinental Airport's new 12-gate Mickey Leland International Airlines terminal, named after the recently deceased Houston congressman. In 1991 Sakowitz stores shut down; the Sakowitz brothers had brought their original store from Galveston to Houston in 1911. August 10, 1991 saw a redrawing of districts for city council, so that minority groups could be better represented in the city council. 1993 saw the G8 visiting to discuss world issues, and zoning was defeated for a third time by voters in November.
The master-planned community of
Rod Paige became superintendent of Houston Independent School District in 1994; during his seven-year tenure the district became very well known for high test scores, and in 2001 Paige was asked to become U.S. Secretary of Education for the new George W. Bush administration. Lee P. Brown, Houston's first African-American mayor, was elected in 1997.
Early 21st century
The city's major sports teams were using outdated stadiums and threatened to leave. Eventually, in 1996, the
Tropical Storm Allison devastated many neighborhoods as well as interrupted all services within the Texas medical center for several months with flooding in June 2001. At least 17 people were killed around the Houston area when the rainfall from Allison that fell on June 8 and 9 caused the city's bayous to rise over their banks.[60]
In October 2001 Enron, a Houston-based energy company, got caught in accounting scandals, ultimately leading to collapse of the company and its accounting firm Arthur Andersen, and the arrest and imprisonment of several executives.
In 2002, the University of Houston celebrated its 75th anniversary with an enrollment of 34,443 that fall semester. At the same time, the University of Houston System celebrated its 25th anniversary with a total enrollment of over 54,000.
The new international Terminal E at George Bush Intercontinental Airport opened with 30 gates in 2003.
The
In 2004, the Mayor of the city was
In the aftermath of the
Six Flags AstroWorld, Houston's only large theme park, closed in 2005.
By 2008, the widening of
In January 2010,
Memorial Day storms in 2015 brought flash flooding to the city as some areas received 11 inches or more of rain overnight, exacerbated by already full bayous. At least three people died and more than 1,000 cars were stranded on highways and overpasses.[62]
In April 2016,
In August 2017, Houston experienced record flooding as a result of Hurricane Harvey. It caused $125 billion dollars in damage, making it one of three tropical cyclones to cause over $100 billion in damages, along with Ian and Katrina.
See also
- Allen Ranch, occupied much of modern Houston and was an early driver of city's growth
- History of the Mexican-Americans in Houston
- List of mayors of Houston
- Timeline of Houston
- History of African Americans in Houston
Citations
- ^ Handbook of Texas Online, Carol A. Lipscomb, "Karankawa Indians," accessed May 28, 2020.
- ^ Handbook of Texas Online, Dorothy Couser, "Atakapa Indians," accessed May 28, 2020.
- ^ a b "Austin, John". Texas Handbook Online. Texas State Historical Association. September 2, 2016. Retrieved November 8, 2017.
- ^ a b c McComb (1981), pp. 11–14.
- ^ McComb (1981), pp. 8–11.
- JSTOR 30237584.
- JSTOR 30242920.
- ^ Kleiner, D.J. (August 26, 2016). "Allen's Landing". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
- ^ a b McComb, David G. (February 15, 2017). "Houston, TX". Texas Handbook Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved November 8, 2017.
- ^ Sibley (1968), pp. 37–39.
- ^ Hall (2012), pp. 34–36.
- ^ Sibley (1968), p. 38.
- ^ Kemp (1944), pp. 3–4.
- ^ Sibley (1968), pp. 46–50.
- ^ a b Chapman, Betty Trapp (2011). "A System of Government Where Business Ruled" (PDF). Houston Review. 8 (1): 29–33. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
- ^ Hogan (1946), pp. 270–272.
- ^ Humphrey, David G. (May 1, 2017). "Austin, TX (Travis County)". Texas Handbook Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved November 8, 2017.
- ^ Platt (1983), pp. 8–9.
- JSTOR 30236841.
- ^ Jackson, Susan (Summer 1980). "Slavery in Houston: The 1850s". Houston Review. 2 (2): 66–81.
- ^ Beeth and Wintz (1992), p. 15.
- ^ Levengood (April 1998), pp. 403–404.
- ^ Beech and Wiltz (1992), pp. 14–15.
- ^ Werner, George C. (June 12, 2010). "Buffalo Bayou, Brazos and Colorado Railway". Texas Handbook Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
- ^ JSTOR 30240901.
- ^ Werner, George C. (March 20, 2017). "Houston and Texas Central Railway". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
- ^ Joe T. Timmons, "The Referendum in Texas on the Ordinance of Secession, February 23, 1861: The Vote." East Texas Historical Journal 11.2 (1973) p. 15 online.
- ^ Andrew F. Lang, "Memory, the Texas Revolution, and Secession: The Birth of Confederate Nationalism in the Lone Star State." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 114.1 (2010): 21-36.
- ^ Levengood (April 1998), pp. 404–408.
- ^ Levengood (April 1998), pp. 414–415.
- ^ McComb (1981), pp. 52–53.
- ^ Beech and Wintz (1992), pp. 21–22.
- ^ Ziegler (May 1872), pp. 12–13 (.pdf 15–16).
- ^ Marion Merseburger, "A political history of Houston, Texas, during the reconstruction period as recorded by the press: 1868-1873" (PhD Dissertation,. Rice U. 1950; online.
- ^ Barry A. Crouch and Larry Madaras, The Dance of Freedom: Texas African Americans During Reconstruction (U of Texas Press, 2007).
- ^ Meeks, Flori (March 28, 2013). "Few traces remain of state fair site". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved September 2, 2020.
- ^ Ziegler (May 1972), pp. 8–10 (.pdf 11–13).
- ^ Baron (1994), pp. 68–69.
- Poor's Publishing Company. p. 364.
- ^ "St Joseph Medical Center | Houston, TX". Sjmctx.com. Retrieved 2013-06-08.
- ^ Ziegler (May 1972), pp. 4–5 (.pdf 7–8).
- ^ Carroll (1912), pp. 103–105.
- ^ Rosales, F. Arturo (Summer 1981). "Mexicans in Houston: The Struggle to Survive, 1908—1975" (PDF). The Houston Review: 224–248.
- ^ Davis, Stephen (1986). "Joseph Jay Pastoriza and the Single Tax in Houston, 1911–1917" (PDF). Vol. 8, no. 2. Houston Review: history and culture of the Gulf Coast.
- ^ Boles, John B. "Rice University". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved September 1, 2020.
- ^ Carroll, Jr., B.H. (1912). "23". Standard History of Houston Texas From a study of the Original Sources. Knoxville, Tennessee: H.W. Crew and Company. Retrieved December 27, 2014. Courtesy of the Woodson Research Center at Rice University.
- ^ Haynes, Robert V. (June 15, 2010). "Houston Riot of 1917". Handbook of Texas. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved February 23, 2020.
- ^ Fox, Stephen (Spring 1983). "Big Park, Little Plans: A History of Hermann Park" (PDF). Cite Magazine. 3: 18–21.
- ^ Fenberg (2011), pp. 140–142.
- ^ a b WPA Writers (1946), p. 117.
- ^ WPA Writers (1946), pp. 119–121.
- ^ McComb (1981), pp. 115–117.
- ^ Keeping the momentum going on the rail project. Kristen Mack, Houston Chronicle. August 17, 2006. Last accessed October 20, 2006.
- ISBN 978-1-57864-143-7.
- ^ "72(R) History for Senate Bill 755". Texas Legislature Online History. Texas Legislature. Retrieved 2010-03-28.
- ^ "72(R) History for House Bill 2299". Texas Legislature Online History. Texas Legislature. Retrieved 2010-03-28.
- ^ Costliest U.S. Hurricanes 1900-2004 (unadjusted). National Hurricane Center, National Weather Service. Last accessed November 19, 2006.
- ^ Lee, Renée C. (October 8, 2008). "Annexed Kingwood split on effects". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
- ^ "City of Houston Annexation FAQ". City of Houston. 1996-10-31. Archived from the original on 1996-10-31. Retrieved 2018-04-24.
- ^ Hegstrom, E., & Christian, C., "17 deaths attributed to storm," Tropical Storm Allison (Houston Chronicle, June 11, 2001).[1]
- ^ Moreno, Jenalia. "Signs of identity South Asian community is planning a celebration today to mark the creation of a district named for Mahatma Gandhi." Houston Chronicle. January 16, 2010. Retrieved on July 27, 2010.
- ^ Katz, Rachel & Good, Dan., "Houston Flooding: 3 People Dead As Still More Rain Expected" (ABC News, May 26, 2015). [2]
- ^ "CNN". CNN. 18 April 2016.
References
- Baron, Steven M. (1994). "Streetcars and the Growth of Houston" (PDF). The Houston Review. 16 (2): 67–100. Retrieved March 18, 2020.
- Beeth, Howard; Wintz, Cary D., eds. (1992). Black Dixie: Afro-Texan History and Culture in Houston. College Station: Texas A & M University Press.
- Carroll, B. H. Jr. (1912). Standard History of Houston Texas From a study of the Original Sources. Knoxville, Tennessee: H. W. Crew and Company. p. 23. Retrieved December 27, 2014. Digital reproduction from the Woodson Research Center at Rice University.
- Davis, Stephen (1986). "Joseph Jay Pastoriza and the Single Tax in Houston, 1911–1917" (PDF). The Houston Review. 8 (2): 56–78.
- Hall, Andrew P. (2012). Galveston-Houston Packet: The Steamboats on Buffalo Bayou. Charleston, SC: The History Press. ISBN 978-1609495916.
- Hogan, William Ransom (1946). The Texas Republic: A Social and Economic History. Austin: Texas State Historical Association. ISBN 978-0-87611-220-5.
- Jackson, Susan (January 1978). "Movin' On: Mobility through Houston in the 1850s". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 81 (3): 251–282. JSTOR 30236841.
- Jackson, Susan (Summer 1980). "Slavery in Houston: The 1850s". Houston Review. 2 (2): 66–81.
- Kemp, L. W. (July 1944). "The Capitol (?) at Columbia". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 48 (1): 3–9. JSTOR 30236053.
- Levengood, Paul Alejandro (1999). For the duration and beyond: World War II and the creation of modern Houston, Texas (Thesis). Rice University (PhD dissertation). hdl:1911/19400. Retrieved March 18, 2020.
- Levengood, Paul A. (April 1998). "In the Absence of Scarcity: The Civil War Prosperity of Houston, Texas". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 101 (4): 401–426. JSTOR 30239127.
- Maher, Edward R. Jr. (April 1952). "Sam Houston and Secession". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 55 (4): 448–458. JSTOR 30237605.
- McComb, David G. (1981). Houston: A History. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-73020-9.
- Muir, Andrew Forest (July 1960). "Railroads Come to Houston 1857–1861". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 64 (1): 42–63. JSTOR 30240901.
- Platt, Harold L. (1983). City Building in the New South: The Growth of Public Services in Houston, Texas, 1830-1915. Temple University Press.
- Sibley, Marilyn McAdams (1968). The Port of Houston: A History. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- WPA Writers Group (1946). Houston: A History and Guide. Houston: Anson Jones Press.
- Ziegler, Robert E. (May 1972). "The Workingman in Houston, Texas, 1865–1914". Texas Tech University (PhD dissertation). Retrieved March 13, 2020.
Further reading
- Allen, O. F. (1936). "The City of Houston from Wilderness to Wonder". Temple, Texas. - Hosted at the University of North Texas
- Blevins, Cameron (2014). "Space, Nation, and the Triumph of Region: A View of the World from Houston" (PDF). Journal of American History. 101 (1): 122–147. Retrieved March 26, 2024.
- Carroll, B. H. (1912). Standard History of Houston Texas. Knoxville, TN: H. W. Crew & Company. Retrieved March 26, 2024.
- De León, Arnoldo (2001). Ethnicity in the Sunbelt: Mexican Americans in Houston. Houston: Center for Mexican American Studies, University of Houston. ISBN 1-58544-149-X. Retrieved March 24, 2024.
- Dietzel, Charles; et al. (2005). "Diffusion and coalescence of the Houston Metropolitan Area: evidence supporting a new urban theory" (PDF). Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. pp. 231–246. Retrieved March 26, 2024.
- Feagin, J. R. (1984). "The role of the state in urban development: the case of Houston, Texas". Environment and Planning D. 2 (4): 447–460.
- ISBN 978-1-4522-6553-7.
- Greene, Casey (1988). "Guardians Against Change: The Ku Klux Klan in Houston and Harris County, 1920-1925". Houston Review. 10 (1): 3–20.
- Kennedy, Tom (2012). Houston Police Department. Charleston, SC: Arcadia. ISBN 978-0-7385-9535-1. Retrieved March 26, 2024.
- Kreneck, Thomas (1985). "Documenting a Mexican American Community: the Houston Example" (PDF). American Archivist. 48 (3): 272–285. Retrieved March 26, 2024.
- Lin, Jan (1995). "Ethnic Places, Postmodernism, and Urban Change in Houston" (PDF). Sociological Quarterly. 36 (4): 629–647. Retrieved March 26, 2024.
- McCleskey, Clifton; Nimmo, Dan (1968). "Differences between potential, registered and actual voters: The Houston metropolitan area in 1964". Social Science Quarterly: 103–114.
- McIntosh, Molly Fifer. "Measuring the labor market impacts of Hurricane Katrina migration: Evidence from Houston, Texas." American Economic Review 98.2 (2008): 54–57. online Archived 2021-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
- Melosi, Martin V.; Pratt, Joseph A., eds. (2007). Energy Metropolis: An Environmental History of Houston and the Gulf Coast. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
- Nimmo, Dan, and Clifton McCleskey. "Impact of the poll tax on voter participation: The Houston metropolitan area in 1966." Journal of Politics 31.3 (1969): 682–699. online
- Oates, Stephen B. "NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center at Houston, Texas." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 67.3 (1964): 350-375. online
- Pit, Chrystel. "Tortillas to Riches: Ninfa Laurenzo, Houston, and the Business of Food and Culture, 1973–98." Food, Culture & Society 17.2 (2014): 245-260.
- Ponton, David III (2017-03-03). "Criminalizing Space: Ideological and Institutional Productions of Race, Gender, and State-sanctioned Violence in Houston, 1948-1967" (PDF). S2CID 158691542. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-09.
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(help) - PhD thesis published by Rice University - Pruitt, Bernadette. "“For the Advancement of the Race” The Great Migrations to Houston, Texas, 1914-1941." Journal of Urban History 31.4 (2005): 435-478.
- Quraishi, Uzma. "Racial calculations: Indian and Pakistani immigrants in Houston, 1960–1980." Journal of American Ethnic History 38.4 (2019): 55-76. online
- Shelton, Kyle. Power Moves: Transportation, Politics, and Development in Houston (University of Texas Press, 2017).
- Smith, Tristan. A History Lover's Guide to Houston (Arcadia, 2020) online.
- Vance, Mike. Houston's Sporting Life: 1900-1950 (Arcadia, 2011) online.
External links
- Houston, Texas from the Handbook of Texas Online
- 174 Years of Historic Houston a Chronology of Houston From 1836 to Present Day
- The Oral History of Houston
- A thumb-nail history of the city of Houston, Texas, from its founding in 1836 to the year 1912, published 1912, hosted by the Portal to Texas History
- True stories of old Houston and Houstonians: historical and personal sketches / by S. O. Young., published 1913, hosted by the Portal to Texas History