Jean Bolikango
Jean Bolikango | |||||||||||||||
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Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of the Congo | |||||||||||||||
In office 9 February 1961 – 1 August 1961 | |||||||||||||||
President | Joseph Kasa-Vubu | ||||||||||||||
Prime Minister | Joseph Iléo | ||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Antoine Gizenga | ||||||||||||||
In office 13 February 1962 – 12 July 1962 | |||||||||||||||
President | Joseph Kasa-Vubu | ||||||||||||||
Prime Minister | Cyrille Adoula | ||||||||||||||
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Personal details | |||||||||||||||
Born | Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution (1968–1982) | 4 February 1909||||||||||||||
Spouse | Claire Bolikango | ||||||||||||||
Jean Bolikango, later Bolikango Akpolokaka Gbukulu Nzete Nzube (4 February 1909 – 17 February 1982), was a Congolese educator, writer, and politician. He served twice as Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of the Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), in September 1960 and from February to August 1962. Enjoying substantial popularity among the Bangala people, he headed the Parti de l'Unité Nationale and worked as a key opposition member in Parliament in the early 1960s.
Bolikango began his career in the Belgian Congo as a teacher in Catholic schools, and became a prominent member of Congolese society as the leader of a cultural association. He wrote an award-winning novel and worked as a journalist before turning to politics in the late 1950s. Though he held a top communications post in the colonial administration, he became a leader in the push for independence, making him one of the "fathers of independence" in the Congo. The Republic of the Congo became independent in 1960 and Bolikango attempted to organise a national political base that would support his bid for a prestigious office in the new government. He succeeded in establishing the Parti de l'Unité Nationale and promoted both a united Congo and strong ties with Belgium. Older than most of his contemporaries and commanding significant respect—especially among his Bangala peers, he was seen as the Congo's "elder statesman". Regardless, his attempts to secure a position in the government failed and he became a leading member of the opposition in Parliament.
As the country became embroiled in a
Early life
Jean Bolikango was born in
That year Bolikango, as the leader of the capital
Bolikango first went abroad when he attended Kethulle de Ryhove's funeral in Belgium in 1956. During his return trip he stopped in
Political career
Beliefs
Bolikango was older than most of his political contemporaries[18] and was regarded as the Congo's "elder statesman".[23] He was labeled conservative and "pro-Belgian".[24] He considered the Senegalese poet and politician Léopold Sédar Senghor to be a principal influence on his beliefs. He also admired Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Côte d'Ivoire for his "wisdom and calmness".[25] Like other members of the original Congolese establishment, Bolikango sought a gradual decolonisation process during which the Belgian authorities were to be amicably negotiated with.[26] He believed the Congo should be united in a broad fashion[f] and supported the formation of a union of African states.[30]
Early organisation
In 1953 Bolikango became a substitute member of the Conseil de la province de Léopoldville.
Bolikango soon thereafter created the Association des ressortisants du Haut-Congo
Attempts at consolidation
To consolidate his political power in Équateur Province, Bolikango summoned a congress to
"Bolikango was one of those Congolese politicians who believed that honesty and keeping one's word were the most important characteristics of political men. He could not conceive of anyone's using deceit, still less violence or brutality, as a tactic for success."
Thomas Kanza's opinion on Bolikango's approach towards politics during his bid for the presidency[46]
In his opening address at the congress, Bolikango said that while "parties based on ethnic foundations" made the first step toward a unified Congo, the "national interest" of the country rested upon a "unity of will". He enumerated that this "does not mean that each ethnic group must abandon its own characteristics, but that through these differences one must endeavour to form a harmonious ensemble."[8] The UNIMO leadership was skeptical of Bolikango's unified outlook for the Congo and remained independent, although he secured the support of the Ngombe, some of the Ngwaka and Bangala, and chiefs from the Lisala, Bongandanga, and Bumba regions.[8] The FUB made an alliance with ASSORECO and FEDUNEC, transforming into the Parti de l'Unité Nationale[q] (PUNA).[45] In spite of its attempts to garner more national appeal, the new party retained its regional bias and failed to amass substantial outside support, costing Bolikango much of his backing in Léopoldville.[2][8] Still, this reformed political base allowed him to win a position as a national deputy from the Mongala district in the May 1960 national election by 15,000 votes.[4] He used his position as the president of PUNA to mediate a dispute between the party and minority alliances in Équateur and create a coalition provincial government.[47] After the elections PUNA gradually pulled apart into two different wings, one led by Bolikango and the other by Équateur Provincial President Laurent Eketebi.[48]
Meanwhile, the MNC sharply criticised Bolikango's connections with the Belgians, undermining his reputation in both Équateur and the capital.
Bolikango faced his former protégé, Joseph Kasa-Vubu of ABAKO, in the parliamentary vote for the presidency. Lumumba realised that the Belgians would only accept him as Prime Minister if Kasa-Vubu held office, so he switched allegiances, privately dismissing Bolikango as a "pawn of Belgium and a protégé of the Catholics", and secretly endorsing Kasa-Vubu. Bolikango lost the parliamentary vote 159 to 43[54] and was left infuriated.[55] In addition to Lumumba's duplicity, Bolikango also suffered in the election due to his recent association with the colonial administration and his breaking with the Cartel to negotiate with Lumumba.[56] According to his friend, Thomas Kanza, the loss was "the most bitter failure in his entire career."[15] He then helped organise an anti-MNC coalition in Parliament.[57]
Congo Crisis
"Where are the freedom and security for all, promised with independence?...[H]ow is it that under Belgian rule we were less ill-treated than we are today? Similarly, how is it conceivable that the country's economy, so prosperous that those who yesterday, under the colonial regime, were sure of their bread, are no longer sure of it for tomorrow? Today, instead of bread, we are offered curfew and bayonets; we once knew the animation of the city, the freedom to live. Now the streets are deserted, occupied militarily. Is that independence or dependence?"
Statement by Bolikango on the Congo Crisis to the press, 2 August 1960[58]
During the
During Iléo's second term from 9 February until 1 August 1961 Bolikango held the post of Deputy Prime Minister.[42] By then he felt threatened by the sudden collapse of political unity in the Congo and supported the government's efforts at re-centralisation.[67] He participated in the Tananarive and Coquilhatville conferences of March and April 1961, representing Équateur and Ubangi, respectively, to seek a compromise on constitutional issues.[42] Throughout June he worked alongside Cyrille Adoula and Marcel Lihau to negotiate a settlement between the central government and a rival Free Republic of the Congo in the eastern portion of the country.[68] This culminated in a conference in July that resulted in the election of Adoula as Prime Minister. Bolikango was certain that he would also be elected as President but Kasa-Vubu retained the office.[69][u]
After the conference Bolikango helped to mediate negotiations between Adoula and secessionist figure Moïse Tshombe, leader of the breakaway State of Katanga.[4] Bolikango claimed that he alone could resolve the situation by sitting "Bantu fashion with legs out stretched" around a table with Tshombe.[18] He scheduled a political conference to take place in Stanleyville to create a new political party with Antoine Gizenga with the intent of isolating Kasa-Vubu and ABAKO in Parliament so he could remove the former from the presidency and replace him. The plans dissolved after Gizenga was arrested in January 1962.[71] On 13 February Bolikango was appointed Deputy Prime Minister.[72] On 12 July Adoula downsized his government and dismissed him from his post.[24] He then re-entered the parliamentary opposition and, by August, was working with Rémy Mwamba and Christophe Gbenye (both ex-ministers also dismissed from Adoula's government) to try and secure support to dislodge Adoula. Bolikango was the opposition's favorite to replace the Prime Minister.[73] In 1963 following the defeat of Katanga, he managed to organise an opposition coalition to Adoula's government, consisting of ABAKO, leftist followers of Lumumba (by then killed) and Gizenga, and Tshombe's Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga[v] (CONAKAT).[18] He also foiled an attempt by one of Adoula's ministers to establish a pro-government party in Équateur.[74] That year Parliament was adjourned and Bolikango's term as a national deputy ended.[75] In late 1963 Laurent Eketebi left PUNA and allied himself with the Budja tribal minority in the provincial assembly, destroying the concept of a unified Bangala tribe that Bolikango had used to elevate his social and political standing.[76]
In 1962 Parliament assented to the partitioning of the Congo's six provinces into smaller political units. The subdivision damaged PUNA's political clout, as it had a strong following in Coquilhatville, the Équateur capital, but not in the outlying areas, where it relied on control of the provincial administration to ensure its presence. Bolikango had opposed the splitting of Équateur, and in 1965 he made provincial reunification a key part of his parliamentary campaign platform.[77] In the 1965 elections he was reelected to a second term in the Chamber of Deputies on a PUNA–Convention Nationale Congolaise[w] (CONACO) ticket.[42][78] He received 53,083 preferential votes, making him the most popular Congolese representative of his respective constituency, second only to Tshombe in southern Katanga.[79] Nevertheless, his provincial reunification proposal met strong resistance from the deputies of Ubangi Province—one of the successor divisions to Équateur—and was not carried out.[77]
Mobutu regime
On 4 April Mobutu dismissed Bolikango from his ministerial post, ostensibly for "lack of discipline and refusing to follow received orders."
In his later life Bolikango served as managing director of the Sogenco construction company and general delegate to the Société zaïroise de Matériaux and STK parastatals.[42] During the same time he made frequent trips to Lisala, where he remained a popular figure. Rumors surfaced in the capital that Bolikango was planning to use his regional political esteem for subversive purposes, so the Mobutu regime closely monitored his activities.[84] Bolikango joined the MPR's central committee in September 1980. He died from an illness on 17 February 1982 in Liège, Belgium.[85][y]
Legacy
Sociologist Ludo De Witte wrote of Bolikango as a "neo-colonial" politician who was "short-sighted and power-crazy".[86] Bolikango is remembered in the Congo as one of the "fathers of independence".[87][88] The Fondation Jean Bolikango[z] was created by Bolikango's grandson in his memory. The foundation focuses on supporting education and social progress.[4] In 2005 President Joseph Kabila posthumously awarded Bolikango a medal for dedication to civil service.[89] Bolikango was also a Commander of the National Order of the Leopard, member of the Royal Order of the Lion, and a recipient of the Benemerenti medal (1950), Medaille Commémorative du Voyage royal[aa] (1955), gold medal of the Association Royale Sportive Congolaise,[ab] and bronze and silver medals for other acts of public service.[42] On 22 February 2007 a ceremony was held in Équateur to commemorate the 25th anniversary of his death.[4]
Notes
- ^ Bolikango was categorised broadly as a Ngala by the residents of Léopoldville, though his heritage traced more specifically to the Ngombe people of the Lisala region.[3]
- ^ Association of Former Students of the Fathers of Scheut; an alumni association for Congolese who were educated by Scheut Missionaries
- ^ According to Mulumba and Makombo, Bolikango received the second place prize.[1] Jadot wrote that Bolikango received the second of two consolation prizes, worth 1,000 francs.[13]
- ^ The carte de mérite civique (civic merit card) could be granted to any Congolese who had no criminal record, did not practice polygamy, abandoned traditional religion, and had some degree of education. Cardholders were given an improved legal status and were exempt from certain restrictions on travel into European districts.[16]
- ^ The colonial administration had eight grades of service. No Congolese served in the first grade.[20]
- Nzongola-Ntalaja states that Bolikango was "[i]nitially a unitarist" and "opted for federalism as soon as he failed to gain an important post in Kinshasa, having lost the presidential election to Kasavubu".[29]
- ^ Council of Léopoldville Province
- ^ Interfederal
- ^ Party of Congolese Unity
- ^ National Congolese Movement
- ^ Party of National Progress
- ^ Front of United Bangala
- ^ Great Bangala ethnicity
- ^ Movement for Congolese National Progress
- ^ Association of Upper Congo Peoples
- ^ Common Front
- ^ Party of National Unity
- ^ Bakongo Alliance
- ^ According to Kent, the result was facilitated by the bribing of 13 deputies by Jacques Lumbala, an ally of Lumumba, who would have otherwise been partial to Bolikango.[51]
- ^ Lumumba told Parliament that Bolikango had been arrested by the Équateur provincial government.[62]
- ^ It was widely rumoured in the Congo that Bolikango was offered the position of Third Deputy Prime Minister but turned it down in anticipation of an opportunity to challenge Kasa-Vubu.[70]
- ^ Confederation of Tribal Associations of Katanga
- ^ Congolese National Convention
- ^ Popular Movement of the Revolution
- ^ According to Monga Monduka, Bolikango died on 22 February.[4]
- ^ Jean Bolikango Foundation
- ^ Commemorative Medal of the Royal Voyage
- ^ Royal Congolese Sport Association
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Mulumba & Makombo 1986, p. 65.
- ^ a b c d e f LaFontaine 2008, p. 218.
- ^ Bennett 1972, p. 301.
- ^ a b c d e f g Monga Monduka, Dieumerci (22 February 2007). "In mémoriam: Jean Bolikango: 25 ans déjà". Digital Congo (in French). Kinshasa: Multimedia Congo s.p.r.l. Archived from the original on 1 December 2009. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
- ^ a b LaFontaine 2008, p. 219.
- ^ LaFontaine 2008, p. 155.
- ^ Kasongo 1998, p. 85.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Lemarchand 1964, p. 281.
- ^ a b Young 2015, p. 245.
- ^ FASD 1962, p. 200.
- ^ Botombele 1976, p. 27.
- ^ African Book Awards Database 2008.
- ^ a b Jadot 1959, p. 39.
- ^ LaFontaine 2008, p. 217.
- ^ a b Kanza 1994, p. 130.
- ^ Geenen 2019, p. 114.
- ^ a b Omasombo Tshonda & Verhaegen 2005, p. 386.
- ^ a b c d e "Report on the Congo". The Atlantic. September 1963.
- ^ Merriam 1961, p. 164.
- ^ a b Hoskyns 1965, p. 12.
- ^ Merriam 1961, pp. 164–165.
- ^ a b Ekambo, Jean-Chrétien (21 February 2010). "La Voix du Congolais s'est éteinte". Le Phare (in French). Kinshasa. Retrieved 28 September 2018.
- ^ Africa Report 1960, p. 4.
- ^ a b Yearbook 1963, p. 178.
- ^ Legum 1961, p. 102.
- ^ Nzongola-Ntalaja 2014, p. 62.
- ^ a b Daily Sun 1960, p. 2.
- ^ Segal 1971, p. 87.
- ^ Nzongola-Ntalaja 1982, p. 119.
- ^ a b Merriam 1961, p. 165.
- ^ Young 2015, p. 120.
- ^ Merriam 1961, p. 158.
- ^ Merriam 1961, pp. 143–144.
- ^ a b FASD 1962, p. 344.
- ^ Legum 1961, p. 101.
- ^ Gérard-Libois 1960, p. 290.
- ^ Brassinne 1989, paragraph 30.
- ^ C. Van Cortenbergh 1960, p. 62.
- ^ Promontorio 1965, back cover.
- ^ Kanza 1994, p. 81.
- ^ Legum 1961, pp. 101–102.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Mulumba & Makombo 1986, p. 66.
- ^ Radio Okapi 2016.
- ^ Forum der freien Welt 1960, p. 33.
- ^ a b Lemarchand 1964, p. 280.
- ^ Kanza 1994, p. 124.
- ^ CRISP no. 70 1960, paragraph 45.
- ^ Omasombo Tshonda 2015, p. 190.
- ^ CRISP no. 70 1960, paragraphs 28, 55–57.
- ^ CRISP no. 70 1960, paragraphs 89–90.
- ^ Kent 2010, 2: The elimination of Lumumba and the establishment of the Adoula government, September 1960–August 1961.
- ^ CRISP no. 70 1960, paragraph 104.
- ^ CRISP no. 70 1960, paragraph 105.
- ^ Frindethie 2016, p. 220.
- ^ Kanza 1994, p. 123.
- ^ CRISP no. 70 1960, paragraph 128.
- ^ Hoskyns 1965, p. 73.
- ^ CRISP no. 78 1960, paragraph 72.
- ^ Howard 2013, p. 301.
- ^ Bacquelaine, Willems & Coenen 2001, p. 76.
- ^ CRISP no. 78 1960, paragraph 28.
- ^ Kanza 1994, p. 294.
- ^ Bacquelaine, Willems & Coenen 2001, p. 77.
- ^ Kanza 1994, pp. 285–286.
- ^ Young 2015, p. 326.
- ^ De Witte 2002, p. 69.
- ^ Willame 1972, pp. 37, 39.
- ^ Higgins 1980, p. 421.
- ^ O'Brien 1962, p. 189.
- ^ Hoskyns 1965, p. 378.
- ^ Africa 1962, p. 8.
- ^ Nnoli 2000, p. 77.
- ^ CIA 1962, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Kyle, Keith (9 April 1964). "Congo: The First Nation of Africa?". The Spectator. p. 6. Retrieved 29 July 2017.
- ^ a b Omasombo Tshonda 2015, p. 223.
- ^ Willame 1972, pp. 53, 56.
- ^ a b Omasombo Tshonda 2015, p. 207.
- ^ Marchés tropicaux et méditerranéens 1966.
- ^ Willame 1972, p. 53.
- ^ Omasombo Tshonda 2015, p. 220.
- ^ Omasombo Tshonda 2015, pp. 207–208.
- ^ Associated Press 1966.
- ^ Young & Turner 2013, p. 56.
- ^ Schatzberg 1991, p. 32.
- ^ Mulumba & Makombo 1986, pp. 65–66.
- ^ De Witte 2002, p. 63.
- ^ "30 juin 2016: la RDC célèbre son 56e anniversaire d'indépendance sur fond d'impasse politique" (in French). Radio Okapi. 30 June 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
- ^ "Congo Celebrates 50th Anniversary of Independence". Congo Planet. Congo News Agency. 30 June 2010. Retrieved 20 February 2010.
- ^ "Le Chef de l'Etat décerne ŕ titre posthume une médaille du mérite civique ŕ Jean Bolikango". Digital Congo (in French). Kinshasa: Multimedia Congo s.p.r.l. 7 March 2005. Archived from the original on 25 October 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
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