Robert Estienne
Robert Estienne | |
---|---|
Genevan (since 1556)[1] | |
Other names | Robert Stephanus, Robert Stephens, Roberti Stephani |
Occupation(s) | Humanist, printer, publisher |
Known for | Publishing the Thesaurus linguae latinae, creating the most common chapter and verse divisions for the Bible |
Robert I Estienne (French: [etjɛn]; 1503 – 7 September 1559),[2] known as Robertus Stephanus in Latin[3] and sometimes referred to as Robert Stephens,[4][5] was a 16th-century printer in Paris. He was the proprietor of the Estienne print shop after the death of his father Henri Estienne, the founder of the Estienne printing firm. Estienne published and republished many classical texts as well as Greek and Latin translations of the Bible. Known as "Printer to the King" in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek, Estienne's most prominent work was the Thesaurus linguae latinae which is considered to be the foundation of modern Latin lexicography. Additionally, he was the first to print the New Testament divided into standard numbered verses.
Raised a
Of Estienne's four sons, two became accomplished printers, one of whom was Henri Estienne who continued the legacy of his grandfather Estienne's printing firm. Along with other printers, Estienne contributed to the "Golden Age of French Typography".
Biography
Early life
Robert Estienne was born in Paris in 1503. The second son of the famous humanist printer Henri Estienne,[6] he became knowledgeable in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.[6] After his father's death in 1520, the Estienne printing establishment was maintained by his father's former partner Simon de Colines who also married Estienne's mother, the widow Estienne.[7] As Estienne was not yet of age at the time of his father's death, Colines and Gilles Nepveu (the husband or fiancé of his sister Nicole) became his legal guardians.[7] Estienne and Colines likely collaborated in Estienne print shop for a time. Colines was known for his exquisite type cutting, whereas Estienne was known for his accuracy.[8]
In 1526, Robert Estienne assumed control of his father's printing shop while Colines established his own firm nearby.
Estienne married Perrette Badius in 1526 whose father Josse Badius Ascensius owned a print shop, giving Estienne the resources to print that he lacked from his father's materials alone. After her father's death in 1535, Estienne merged the Estienne and Badius printing business.[14] His first Biblia or version of the Vulgate Bible was published in 1527.[15] While he was working on the Bible, he increased his revenue and reputation by publishing a series of octavos, which in this case were small, inexpensive educational books from scholars such as Cicero and Lucian.[16] Estienne's trade was primarily as printer-bookseller and though he did publish his own prints, he did not publish in partnership with other printers as was a common practice for printers of the time.[17]
Latin classics
With his title of "royal typographer"
Many of Estienne's published classics, especially the Greek editions (which were printed with typefaces made by
Dictionaries
One of the best printers of his time,[32] Robert Estienne was asked to either compile a dictionary from the best Latin authors or make one himself; in 1531 he published Thesaurus linguae latinae, which is considered by some scholars to be the foundation of modern Latin lexicography.[33] Moreover, this dictionary made Estienne the "father of French lexicography".[34] He had worked on it for two years, with the assistance only of Thierry of Beauvais.[2] It was 964 pages and was improved in 1536 and 1543 in three volumes.[35] Considered his "greatest monument of Latin scholarship", he employed research assistants for the 1543 version: Andreas Gruntleus, Gerardus Clericus, and Adam Nodius.[36]
From his work on the Thesaurus linguae latinae, he published Dictionarium latino-gallicum in 1538 and Dictionaire francoislatin in 1540.[34] These dictionaries were superior to others at the time because non-classical elements had been edited out; when determining words, they were checked for correctness and applicability in context; and citations were exclusively from classical authors.[37] Furthermore, it applied consistency to word order since lexicographers disagreed about whether words should be ordered alphabetically or etymologically. Estienne's thesaurus was alphabetical based on the first three letters of the word, then grouped etymologically.[37] In the 1540s, he began publishing more concise school dictionaries.[38] Many of these dictionaries were translated into other languages such as German and Flemish.[39] From 1528 to 1580, he published several editions of Alphabetum graecum, a representation of Renaissance Greek orthography.[40]
Religious texts
Although Robert Estienne was printing Bibles in Latin as early as 1528, he printed his first Greek New Testament in 1546. Despite its similarity to the works of Erasmus, Estienne did not credit Erasmus and rather claimed to be influenced by ancient codices.[41] The first two are beautiful Greek texts, called O mirifica.[42] The third and most significant is known as the Editio Regia or the "Royal Edition", published in 1550 for King Henri II. Typographically it is significant because the Greek font made by Garamond became the most widely used Greek font for European printers. In it he combined over 15 Greek sources with annotations in the margins.[43] The 1550 version became known as the Textus Receptus, the standard text for many generations.[44] The 1551 edition contains Erasmus's Latin translation and the Vulgate. Scholars have described his editing of the Vulgate as mediocre and lacking in effort or depth.[45] In this edition of the Vulgate, Estienne introduced the division of the New Testament into chapter and verses for the first time.[46]
After he finished the Vulgate, he began developing his style. He was interested in working on original texts rather than translations. Additionally, he was interested in writing commentaries to help an average reader understand the academic texts to the point of adding his own interpretation.[47] Moreover, Estienne's commentary in the fourth edition of the Greek New Testament initiated the antagonism of the Sorbonne against Estienne.[48]
He published two editions of the Hebrew Bible: one in 13 volumes and another one in 10 volumes.[49] Estienne acquired Vulgate manuscripts while in Paris and printed a number of editions throughout his career. The principal editions are the 1527, 1532, 1540 (one of the ornaments of his press), and 1546. In the 1532 edition, he placed the Acts in between the gospels and epistles of Paul as is standard in most Bibles. Before this, the Acts were usually found at the end.[50] Furthermore, typographer and printing historian Stanley Morison claimed that Estienne's 1532 folio Bible contained, "what is probably the finest use ever made of [the Garamond] letter."[51] Estienne printed this edition of the Bible in a grand folio format; his expected buyers were the nobility and the wealthy rather than the university faculty/students.[52] Though in 1543, his style shifted to that of sextodecimo format, printing Bibles in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, which assumes the buyers are students and professors.[52]
His editions, especially that of 1546, containing a new translation at the side of the Vulgate, was the subject of sharp and acrimonious criticism from the clergy. In 1539 he received the distinguishing title of "Printer to the king" for Latin and Hebrew, and later for Greek.[nb 1][54] This incited anger from the Sorbonne because Estienne had converted from Catholicism to Protestantism.[55] The Sorbonne was opposed to the humanist ideals of the time and was attempting to censor Estienne's publishing firm.[19] He was protected by Francis I of France with whom he enjoyed strong patronage and friendship; Estienne aided Francis I in printing documents ratifying policies which established and justified his power.[34] Later, Estienne published a document to inform the public how alliances between French royalty, German Protestants, and Turkish royalty were beneficial for European religious peace.[34] In 1538, Francis I requested that Estienne give a copy of every Greek book he had printed to create the royal library, which became the first copyright library.[34] However, after Francis I died in 1547 and was succeeded by Henry II,[6] Estienne fled to Geneva around 1550.[56] With him, he brought his printing material, including his Greek type made by Garamond.[57]
Geneva
On his arrival at Geneva, Robert Estienne published a defense against the attacks of the Sorbonne in 1552 called his Réponse. Robert Estienne used several pressmarks or devices on his prints. Estienne's pressmark with an olive branch and a serpent wound around a spear was first seen in 1544 on the title page of Preparatio Evangelica. It was symbolic of wisdom in times of war and peace. The motto below it translates to "to the wise king and the valiant warrior".
Robert Estienne encouraged his four sons to study and perfect his professions.[75] His will indicated that he wished all of his sons follow in his profession.[76] Two of Robert's sons, Henri and Robert became successful printers.[77] François (born 1540) printed in Geneva from 1562 to 1582. As well as issuing editions of the Bible in Latin and French, he published some of Calvin's works.[78]
Robert Estienne II (1530–1570) studied Hebrew as his father recommended.[75] Uninterested in the Reformation, he stayed in Paris instead of following his father to Geneva, opening his own printing shop in 1556.[6] He earned the title of Typographus regius in 1563.[79] He printed the New Testament of 1568–1569, a reprint of his father's first edition.[80] He printed the Decalogue in Hebrew and Aramaic in 1566.[75] Additionally, Estienne printed books in Hebrew for professors in Paris, but fled to Geneva in 1569, because he worked for Anglican clients. He died in 1570.[81]
Pressmarks
Family
See also
Footnotes
Citations
References
henri robert francois celebrated printers.
External links