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Trophy hunting is the selective

wild game

classified as game animals. The primary motivation is to seek the oldest and most mature animal from a given population. This is typically a male with the largest body size or largest antlers or horns. Parts of the animal may be kept as a hunting trophy or memorial (usually the skin, antlers, horns and/or head), the carcass itself is often used as food.

Trophy hunting has firm supporters and opponents. Debate surrounding trophy hunting centrally concerns not only the question of the morality of recreational hunting and supposed conservation efforts of big-game and ranch hunting, but also the observed decline in animal species that are targets for trophy hunting.

A hunting trophy is an item prepared from the body of a

teeth, tusks, horns

or hide are used as the trophies.

Such trophies are often displayed in the hunter's home or office, and often in specially designed "trophy rooms," sometimes called "game rooms" or "gun rooms," in which the hunter's weaponry is displayed as well.[1]

Types of Trophy Hunting

Big game hunting

A big-game hunter is a person engaged in the sport of trophy hunting for large animals or

game. Potential big game sought include, but are not limited to, bears, big cats, hippos, elephants, rhinos, buffalos, and moose

.

Advocates of trophy hunting cite the potential conservation efforts of big-game in trophy hunting practices.

Ranch hunting

Ranch hunting is different from big-game hunting in that the animals hunted are specifically bred on the ranch for trophy hunting purposes.

Many species of game such as the Indian

Iranian red sheep

, and variety of other species of deer, sheep, and antelope from Africa, Asia, and the Pacific islands were introduced to ranches in Texas and Florida for the sake of trophy hunting.

These animals are typically hunted on a fee for each kill, with hunters paying $4000 or more to be able to hunt exotic game.

Endangered Species Act

, but is permitted on these ranches since the rare animals hunted there are not indigenous to the United States to begin with.

The Humane Society of the United States has criticized these ranches and the people who hunt there for among other reasons that they are still hunting endangered animals even if the animals were raised specifically to be hunted.

Trophy hunting in Africa

Trophy hunting has been practiced in Africa and is still a practiced in many African countries. According to a study sponsored by International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC) in partnership with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the revenue generated by hunting tourism in seven Southern African Development Communities (SADC) in 2008 is approximately US $190 million.^[4]

In an opinion piece by Jeff Flocken of the International Fund for Animal Welfare, he states that "despite the wild claims that trophy hunting brings millions of dollars in revenue to local people in otherwise poor communities, there is no proof of this. Even pro-hunting organizations like the International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation have reported that only 3 percent of revenue from trophy hunting ever makes it to the communities affected by hunting. The rest goes to national governments or foreign-based outfitters. The money that does come into Africa from hunting pales in comparison to the billions and billions generated from tourists who come just to watch wildlife. If lions and other animals continue to disappear from Africa, this vital source of income—nonconsumptive tourism—will end, adversely impacting people all over Africa."^[5]

However, South African Environmental Affairs Minister, Edna Molewa, contradicts Flocken's conclusions by stating that the hunting industry has contributed millions to South Africa's economy in past years. In the 2010 hunting season, total revenue of approximately R1.1-billion was generated by the local and trophy hunting industries collectively. "This amount only reflects the revenue generated through accommodation and species fees. The true revenue is therefore substantially higher, as this amount does not even include revenue generated through the associated industries as a result of the multiplier effect," according to Molewa.^[6]

Economic Influence

According to the

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, trophy hunting "provides an economic incentive" for ranchers to continue to breed those species, and that hunting "reduces the threat of the species' extinction".^[7]^[8]

Wildlife ranches dedicated to sustainable hunting have proliferated greatly in some countries of Africa, notably, Namibia and South Africa. Wildlife has seen gigantic growth on private land in Southern Africa in the last three decades. It evolved from a mere cost, which was better eradicated to a great economic asset, once private ranchers were granted the rights of ownership over game.[9] Wildlife ranches have contributed greatly to the South African economy, mostly through sustainable utilisitation of game as trophy animals.^[10]

The International Union for Conservation of Nature recognizes that trophy hunting, when well-managed, can be sustainable and generate significant economic incentives for the conservation of target species and their habitats outside of protected areas, as well as support local livelihoods.^[11]

Economic Benefits of Trophy Hunting

According to Richard Conniff, Namibia is home to 1,750 of the roughly 5,000 black rhinos surviving in the wild because it allows trophy hunting. Its mountain zebra population has also increased to 27,000 from 1,000 in 1982. Elephants, which are gunned down elsewhere for their ivory, have gone to 20,000 from 15,000 in 1995.

Lions, which were on the brink of extinction "from Senegal to Kenya", are increasing in Namibia.^[12]

On the contrary, Kenya, which banned trophy hunting in 1977, has seen a 70 percent decline of wild animals according to Laurence Frank, a zoology researcher at the

University of California at Berkeley and director of the conservation group Living with Lions. Because the government has no incentive to protect wild animals, effective enforcement on protecting animals has been a disaster according to Frank.^[13]

According to a 2012 article by P. Lindsey and G. Balme, if lion hunting was effectively precluded, trophy hunting could potentially become financially unviable across at least 59,538 km² that could result in a concomitant loss of habitat.

However, the loss of lion hunting could have other potentially broader negative impacts including reduction of competitiveness of wildlife-based land uses relative to ecologically unfavourable alternatives.

Restrictions on lion hunting may also reduce tolerance for the species among communities where local people benefit from trophy hunting, and may reduce funds available for anti-poaching.[14]

Tanzania has an estimated 40% of the population of lions. Its wildlife authorities defend their success in keeping such numbers (as compared to countries like Kenya, where lion numbers have plummeted dramatically) as linked to the use of trophy hunting as a conservation tool. According to Alexander N. Songorwa, director of wildlife for the Tanzanian Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, trophy hunting generated roughly $75 million for Tanzania’s economy from 2008 to 2011.^[15]

The National Wildlife Federation supports hunting because "under professional regulation, wildlife populations are a renewable natural resource that can safely sustain taking." ^[16]

The President of Panthera, a conservation group for big cats and their ecosystems, argues that trophy hunting gives African governments economic incentives to leave safari blocks as wilderness, and that hunting remains the most effective tool to protect wilderness in many parts of Africa.^[17]^[18]

Proponents of trophy hunting claim many hunting fees go toward conservation, such as portions of hunting license fees, hunting tags and ammunition taxes. In addition, private groups, such as the National Shooting Sports Foundation, which contributed more than $400,000 in 2005,^[19] and smaller private groups also contribute significant funds; for example, the Grand Slam Club Ovis has raised more than $6.3 million to date for the conservation of sheep.^[20]

Pro-Trophy Hunting Studies

A 2005 paper by Nigel Leader-Williams and colleagues in the Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy asserted that the legalization of white rhinoceros hunting in South Africa motivated private landowners to reintroduce the species onto their lands. As a result, white rhinos increased from fewer than one hundred individuals to more than 11,000.^[21]

Leader-Williams's study also showed that trophy hunting in Zimbabwe doubled wildlife areas relative to state protected areas. The implementation of controlled and legalized hunting led to an increase in the area of suitable land available to elephants and other wildlife, which "reversed the problem of habitat loss and helping to maintain a sustained population increase in Zimbabwe’s already large elephant population."^[21]

A scientific study in the journal, Biological Conservation, states that trophy hunting is of "major importance to conservation in Africa by creating economic incentives for conservation over vast areas, including areas which may be unsuitable for alternative wildlife-based land uses such as photographic ecotourism." ^[22]

Financial incentives from trophy hunting effectively more than double the land area that is used for wildlife conservation, relative to what would be conserved relying on national parks alone, according to the study published in Biological Conservation.^[22]

Trophy hunting has been considered essential for providing economic incentives to conserve large carnivores according to other research studies in Conservation Biology,^[23] Journal of Sustainable Tourism,^[24] Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use,^[25] and Animal Conservation.^[23]^[26]

Controversy

Opposition

In the 1970s and 1980s, people in many Western countries assumed a pejorative association regarding hunting for trophy.

Many of the 189 countries signatory to the 1992 Rio Accord have developed biodiversity action plans that discourage the hunting of protected species.^[27]

The League Against Cruel Sports has produced a report alleging trophy hunting does not have a positive effect on conservation. They suggest ecotourism can earn local communities as much as 15 times the amount of money earned by livestock, game-rearing or overseas hunting. Ecotourism increases the number of jobs and lengthens the time wildlife exists as an economic resource.^{[citation needed]}

Trophy hunting opponents also cite the genetic health of species because hunters often try to kill large, healthy individuals instead of smaller, unhealthy and/or unattractive individuals. This indicates the animals that would pass on evolutionarily-beneficial genes to their offspring are, in fact, the ones that become less likely to reproduce.

big cats, rhinos and elephants.^[28]

Support

Organizations that support trophy hunting as a tool for conservation include The National Wildlife Federation, The Wildness Society, The Izzaak Walton League of America, North American Wildlife Foundation, Outdoor Writers Association of America, Ducks Unlimited, The American Forestry Association, Wildlife Legislative Fund of America, Wildlife Management Institute, and The Wildlife Society.^[29]^[30]

Organizations that are neutral and do not oppose trophy hunting include

World Wildlife Fund.^[29]^[30]

Proposed Solutions

However, when poorly managed, trophy hunting can cause negative ecological impacts for the target species such as altered age/sex structures,

canned hunting, conducted by some operators which attract negative press and foster support for hunting bans.^[45]

Certificate System

One proposed solution to these problems is the development of a certification system, whereby hunting operators are rated on three criteria.[45]^[46]

In terms of their commitment to conservation through actions such as adherence to quotas and contributions towards anti-poaching efforts.
The extent to which they benefit and involve local communities.
Upon their upholding of agreed upon ethical standards.

Challenges to the Certificate System

Introducing a certification system however remains challenging because it requires co-operation between hunting operators, conservationists and governments.

endangered animals might be, and the conservation consequences these might entail. For example, it has been suggested that contributions towards conservation organizations could decline because allowing hunting of a species could convey the message that it does not require saving. So even if the aforementioned problems associated with trophy hunting were addressed at a local level through the implementation of a certification system, the positive impacts for conservation may be outweighed by powerful global messages sent to distant individuals who can also influence conservation outcomes.^[49]

Profile of a trophy hunter

A study, published in the journal Animal Conservation,

cheetahs were illegally shot than their hunting operators perceived, and they also showed greater concern for social issues than their operators realized, with a huge willingness to hunt in areas were local people lived and benefited from hunting (Fig.1). Eighty-six percent of hunters told the researchers they preferred hunting in an area where they knew that a portion of the proceeds went back into local communities.^[21] A certification system could therefore allow hunters to select those operators who benefit local people and conduct themselves in a conservation-friendly manner.^[45]

In the Media

The controversy surrounding trophy hunting was further ignited when an American dentist Walter Palmer gained internet infamy when a picture of him and the dead lion Cecil went viral.[51]

Banning of Trophy Hunting

Botswana banned trophy hunting in 2014, and now villagers claim they get no income from trophy hunters, suffer from damaged crop fields caused by elephants and buffaloes, and lions killing their livestock.^[52] Some conservationists claim trophy hunting is more effective for wildlife management than a complete hunting ban.

Trophies

References

^ Business Week On the hunt for a gun room?: Business celebrates a love of firearms, hunting big animals, Knight Ridder, 10/11/2009 (retrieved 10/11/2009)
^ "Exotic Hunting | Texas' Best Exotic Hunting Ranch | V-Bharre Ranch | Texas' Premier Hunting Ranch | V-Bharre Ranch". huntingtexastrophies.com. Retrieved 2014-02-22.
^ "Texas Exotic Hunting - Texas trophy exotic hunting in West TX". web.archive.org. Retrieved 2014-02-22.
^ http://www.cic-wildlife.org/fileadmin/Press/Technical_Series/EN/8_.pdf
^ "Opinion: Why Are We Still Hunting Lions?". news.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 2014-02-22.
^ http://mg.co.za/article/2012-10-30-molewa-hunting-brings-much-to-south-africas-economy
^ http://www.fws.gov/policy/library/2005/05-17432.pdf
^ http://www.cbsnews.com/news/can-hunting-endangered-animals-save-the-species/
^ http://www.cic-wildlife.org/fileadmin/Press/Technical_Series/EN/5.pdf
^ http://www.sawma.co.za/images/Dry_Gert_Full_paper.pdf
^ IUCN Species Survival Commission (2012). Guiding Principles on Trophy Hunting as a Tool for Creating Conservation Incentives.
^ http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/21/opinion/a-trophy-hunt-thats-good-for-rhinos.html
^ http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/04/opinion/the-ethics-of-safari-hunting-in-africa.html
^ "PLOS ONE: The Significance of African Lions for the Financial Viability of Trophy Hunting and the Maintenance of Wild Land". plosone.org. Retrieved 2014-02-22.
^ "The New York Times". nytimes.com. Retrieved 2014-02-22.
^ http://cjonline.com/stories/031608/out_258309516.shtml
^ http://www.panthera.org/node/1253
^ http://www.panthera.org/node/249
^ State Agencies Receive Over $420,000 in Grants Through Hunting Heritage Partnership
^ Grand Slam Club Ovis
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d http://conservationmagazine.org/2014/01/can-trophy-hunting-reconciled-conservation/
^ ^a ^b http://www.africanwildlifeconservationfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Economic-and-conservation-significance.pdf
^ ^a ^b http://www.cbs.umn.edu/sites/default/files/public/downloads/Effects%20of%20trophy%20hunting%20on%20populations%20of%20lions%20and%20leopards%20in%20TZ.pdf
^ http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669589708667294#.U8G7cfkuigY
^ http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-011-4012-6_15
^ http://www.ewca.gov.et/sites/default/files/Lindsey%20et%20al%20%202006%20Potential%20of%20trophy%20hunting%20to%20create%20incentives%20for%20wildlifeconservationin%20Africa.pdf
^ "Arguments against trophy hunting". Retrieved 2007-09-25.
^ http://traveller24.news24.com/News/Airlines-send-SA-trophy-hunting-industry-into-tailspin-with-cargo-ban-20150514
^ ^a ^b http://www.nssf.org/safety/lit/WTSAH10.pdf
^ ^a ^b http://www.animalliberationfront.com/AR_Orgs/Wildlife%20Organizations%20Positions%20on%20Hunting.htm
^ Milner JM, Nilsen EB & Andreassen HP. (2007). Demographic side effects of selective hunting in ungulates and carnivores. Conservation Biology. 21(1), 36-47.
^ Rasmussen HB, Okello JB, Wittemyer G, Siegismund HR, Arctander P, Vollrath F, et al. (2007). Age- and tactic-related paternity success in male African elephants. Behavioral ecology. 19(1): 9-15.
^ Lindsey PA, Balme GA, Funston P, Henschel P, Hunter L, Madzikanda H, et al.(2013). The trophy hunting of African lions: scale, current management practices and factors undermining sustainability.PLoS One. 8(9).
^ Sogbohossou E A, Bauer H, Loveridge A, Funston PJ, De Snoo GR, Sinsin B, et al. (2014). Social structure of lions (Panthera leo) is affected by management in Pendjari Biosphere Reserve, Benin. PLoS One. 9(1).
^ Crosmary W-G, Loveridge a. J, Ndaimani H, Lebel S, Booth V, Côté SD, et al. (2013). Trophy hunting in Africa: long-term trends in antelope horn size. Animal Conservation. 16(6):648–60.
^ Nuzzo MC & Traill LW. (2013). What 50 years of trophy hunting records illustrate for hunted African elephant and bovid populations. African Journal of Ecology. 52(2):250-253.
^ Festa-Bianchet M, Pelletier F, Jorgenson JT, Feder C & Hubbs A. (2014). Decrease in horn size and increase in age of trophy sheep in Alberta over 37 years. Journal of Wildlife Management. 78(1):133-41.
^ Loveridge A, Searle A, Murindagomo F & Macdonald D. (2007). The impact of sport-hunting on the population dynamics of an African lion population in a protected area. Biological Conservation. 134(4):548–58.
^ Packer C, Brink H, Kissui BM, Maliti H, Kushnir H & Caro T. (2011). Effects of trophy hunting on lion and leopard populations in Tanzania. Conservation Biology. 25(1):142–53.
^ Hussain S. (2003). The status of the snow leopard in Pakistan and its conflict with local farmers. Oryx. 37(1):26-33.
^ Grignolio S, Merli E, Bongi P, Ciuti S & Apollonio M. (2010). Effects of hunting with hounds on a non-target species living on the edge of a protected area. Biological Conservation. 144(1):641-649
^ Nelson F, Nshala R & Rodgers WA. (2007). The Evolution and Reform of Tanzanian Wildlife Management. Conservation & Society. 5(2):232-261.
^ Booth VR. (2010). Contribution of Hunting Tourism: How Significant Is This to National Economies. Joint publication of FAO and CIC.
^ Campbell R. (2013). The $200 million question. How much does trophy hunting really contribute to African communities? A report for the African Lion Coalition. Economists at large, Melbourne, Australia.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Lindsey PA, Frank LG, Alexander R, Mathieson A & Romañach SS. (2007). Trophy hunting and conservation in Africa: problems and one potential solution. Conservation Biology. 21(3):880–3.
^ Lewis D & Jackson J. (2005). Safari hunting and conservation on communal land in southern Africa. Pages 239-251 in R. Woodroffe, S. Thirgood, and A. Rabinowitz, editors. People and wildlife: conflict or coexistence? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
^ Nelson F, Lindsey PA & Balme G. (2013). hunting and lion conservation: a question of governance?. Oryx. 47(4):501-509.
^ Selier SJ, Page BR, Vanak AT & Slotow R. (2014). Sustainability of elephant hunting across international borders in southern Africa: A case study of the greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area. Journal of Wildlife Management. 78(1):122-132.
^ Buckley R. (2014). Mixed signals from hunting rare wildlife. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 12(6):321-322.
^ Lindsey PA, Alexander R, Frank LG, Mathieson A & Romanach SS. (2006). Potential of trophy hunting to create incentives for wildlife conservation in Africa where alternative wildlife-based land uses may not be viable. Conservation Biology. 9(3):283-291.
^ "American Public Roars After It Gets a Glimpse of International Trophy Hunting of Lions · A Humane Nation". A Humane Nation. Retrieved 2015-11-21. {{cite web}}: no-break space character in |title= at position 63 (help)
ISSN 0362-4331
. Retrieved 2015-09-13.

Yahya M. Musakhel 2005: Identification of Biodiversity hotspots in Musakhel district Balochistan Pakistan.

Further reading

Foa, E. After Big Game in Central Africa. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-03274-9.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hunting trophies.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trophy_hunting&oldid=691724271"

[1] Business Week On the hunt for a gun room?: Business celebrates a love of firearms, hunting big animals, Knight Ridder, 10/11/2009 (retrieved 10/11/2009)

[huntingtexastrophies-2] "Exotic Hunting | Texas' Best Exotic Hunting Ranch | V-Bharre Ranch | Texas' Premier Hunting Ranch | V-Bharre Ranch". huntingtexastrophies.com. Retrieved 2014-02-22.

[continentalranchtexas-3] "Texas Exotic Hunting - Texas trophy exotic hunting in West TX". web.archive.org. Retrieved 2014-02-22.

[4] ttp://www.cic-wildlife.org/fileadmin/Press/Technical_Series/EN/8_.pdf

[nationalgeographic-5] "Opinion: Why Are We Still Hunting Lions?". news.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 2014-02-22.

[6] ttp://mg.co.za/article/2012-10-30-molewa-hunting-brings-much-to-south-africas-economy

[7] ttp://www.fws.gov/policy/library/2005/05-17432.pdf

[8] ttp://www.cbsnews.com/news/can-hunting-endangered-animals-save-the-species/

[9] ttp://www.cic-wildlife.org/fileadmin/Press/Technical_Series/EN/5.pdf

[10] ttp://www.sawma.co.za/images/Dry_Gert_Full_paper.pdf

[11] IUCN Species Survival Commission (2012). Guiding Principles on Trophy Hunting as a Tool for Creating Conservation Incentives.

[12] ttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/21/opinion/a-trophy-hunt-thats-good-for-rhinos.html

[13] ttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/04/opinion/the-ethics-of-safari-hunting-in-africa.html

[plosone-14] "PLOS ONE: The Significance of African Lions for the Financial Viability of Trophy Hunting and the Maintenance of Wild Land". plosone.org. Retrieved 2014-02-22.

[nytimes-15] "The New York Times". nytimes.com. Retrieved 2014-02-22.

[16] ttp://cjonline.com/stories/031608/out_258309516.shtml

[17] ttp://www.panthera.org/node/1253

[18] ttp://www.panthera.org/node/249

[19] State Agencies Receive Over $420,000 in Grants Through Hunting Heritage Partnership

[20] Grand Slam Club Ovis

[conservationmagazine.org-21] ttp://conservationmagazine.org/2014/01/can-trophy-hunting-reconciled-conservation/

[africanwildlifeconservationfund.org-22] ttp://www.africanwildlifeconservationfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Economic-and-conservation-significance.pdf

[cbs.umn.edu-23] ttp://www.cbs.umn.edu/sites/default/files/public/downloads/Effects%20of%20trophy%20hunting%20on%20populations%20of%20lions%20and%20leopards%20in%20TZ.pdf

[24] ttp://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669589708667294#.U8G7cfkuigY

[25] ttp://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-011-4012-6_15

[26] ttp://www.ewca.gov.et/sites/default/files/Lindsey%20et%20al%20%202006%20Potential%20of%20trophy%20hunting%20to%20create%20incentives%20for%20wildlifeconservationin%20Africa.pdf

[27] "Arguments against trophy hunting". Retrieved 2007-09-25.

[28] ttp://traveller24.news24.com/News/Airlines-send-SA-trophy-hunting-industry-into-tailspin-with-cargo-ban-20150514

[nssf.org-29] ttp://www.nssf.org/safety/lit/WTSAH10.pdf

[animalliberationfront.com-30] ttp://www.animalliberationfront.com/AR_Orgs/Wildlife%20Organizations%20Positions%20on%20Hunting.htm

[31] Milner JM, Nilsen EB & Andreassen HP. (2007). Demographic side effects of selective hunting in ungulates and carnivores. Conservation Biology. 21(1), 36-47.

[32] Rasmussen HB, Okello JB, Wittemyer G, Siegismund HR, Arctander P, Vollrath F, et al. (2007). Age- and tactic-related paternity success in male African elephants. Behavioral ecology. 19(1): 9-15.

[33] Lindsey PA, Balme GA, Funston P, Henschel P, Hunter L, Madzikanda H, et al.(2013). The trophy hunting of African lions: scale, current management practices and factors undermining sustainability.PLoS One. 8(9).

[34] Sogbohossou E A, Bauer H, Loveridge A, Funston PJ, De Snoo GR, Sinsin B, et al. (2014). Social structure of lions (Panthera leo) is affected by management in Pendjari Biosphere Reserve, Benin. PLoS One. 9(1).

[35] Crosmary W-G, Loveridge a. J, Ndaimani H, Lebel S, Booth V, Côté SD, et al. (2013). Trophy hunting in Africa: long-term trends in antelope horn size. Animal Conservation. 16(6):648–60.

[36] Nuzzo MC & Traill LW. (2013). What 50 years of trophy hunting records illustrate for hunted African elephant and bovid populations. African Journal of Ecology. 52(2):250-253.

[37] Festa-Bianchet M, Pelletier F, Jorgenson JT, Feder C & Hubbs A. (2014). Decrease in horn size and increase in age of trophy sheep in Alberta over 37 years. Journal of Wildlife Management. 78(1):133-41.

[38] Loveridge A, Searle A, Murindagomo F & Macdonald D. (2007). The impact of sport-hunting on the population dynamics of an African lion population in a protected area. Biological Conservation. 134(4):548–58.

[39] Packer C, Brink H, Kissui BM, Maliti H, Kushnir H & Caro T. (2011). Effects of trophy hunting on lion and leopard populations in Tanzania. Conservation Biology. 25(1):142–53.

[40] Hussain S. (2003). The status of the snow leopard in Pakistan and its conflict with local farmers. Oryx. 37(1):26-33.

[41] Grignolio S, Merli E, Bongi P, Ciuti S & Apollonio M. (2010). Effects of hunting with hounds on a non-target species living on the edge of a protected area. Biological Conservation. 144(1):641-649

[42] Nelson F, Nshala R & Rodgers WA. (2007). The Evolution and Reform of Tanzanian Wildlife Management. Conservation & Society. 5(2):232-261.

[43] Booth VR. (2010). Contribution of Hunting Tourism: How Significant Is This to National Economies. Joint publication of FAO and CIC.

[44] Campbell R. (2013). The $200 million question. How much does trophy hunting really contribute to African communities? A report for the African Lion Coalition. Economists at large, Melbourne, Australia.

[lindsey1-45] Lindsey PA, Frank LG, Alexander R, Mathieson A & Romañach SS. (2007). Trophy hunting and conservation in Africa: problems and one potential solution. Conservation Biology. 21(3):880–3.

[46] Lewis D & Jackson J. (2005). Safari hunting and conservation on communal land in southern Africa. Pages 239-251 in R. Woodroffe, S. Thirgood, and A. Rabinowitz, editors. People and wildlife: conflict or coexistence? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

[47] Nelson F, Lindsey PA & Balme G. (2013). hunting and lion conservation: a question of governance?. Oryx. 47(4):501-509.

[48] Selier SJ, Page BR, Vanak AT & Slotow R. (2014). Sustainability of elephant hunting across international borders in southern Africa: A case study of the greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area. Journal of Wildlife Management. 78(1):122-132.

[49] Buckley R. (2014). Mixed signals from hunting rare wildlife. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 12(6):321-322.

[50] Lindsey PA, Alexander R, Frank LG, Mathieson A & Romanach SS. (2006). Potential of trophy hunting to create incentives for wildlife conservation in Africa where alternative wildlife-based land uses may not be viable. Conservation Biology. 9(3):283-291.

[51] "American Public Roars After It Gets a Glimpse of International Trophy Hunting of Lions · A Humane Nation". A Humane Nation. Retrieved 2015-11-21. {{cite web}}: no-break space character in |title= at position 63 (help)

[52] ISSN 0362-4331
. Retrieved 2015-09-13.

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[11]

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{other uses|Trophy (disambiguation)}}
 [[Image:Bear hunting Kodiak FWS.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hunter with a bear's head and hide strapped to his back on the [[Kodiak Archipelago]]]]
-'''Trophy hunting''' is the selective [[hunting]] of [[wild game]] classified as game animals. The primary motivation is to seek the oldest, and most mature animal from a given population, which is typically a male with the largest body size or largest antlers or horns. These animals have made their contribution to the gene pool and are nearing or are post-breeding age. Another motivation for the hunter may be the opportunity to participate in the management of a population by selectively removing these post breeding-age males. Parts of the animal may be kept as a hunting trophy or memorial (usually the skin, antlers, horns and/or head), the carcass itself is often used as food.
+'''Trophy hunting''' is the selective [[hunting]] of [[wild game]] classified as game animals. The primary motivation is to seek the oldest and most mature animal from a given population. This is typically a male with the largest body size or largest antlers or horns. Parts of the animal may be kept as a hunting trophy or memorial (usually the skin, antlers, horns and/or head), the carcass itself is often used as food.
-Trophy hunting has firm supporters and opponents. Public debate about trophy hunting often centers on the question of the morality of recreational hunting or the extent to which the money paid by sportsmen seeking a trophy animal provides a conservation benefit to the overall population of game animals and the rural economies where the game is hunted.
+Trophy hunting has firm supporters and opponents. Debate surrounding trophy hunting centrally concerns not only the question of the morality of recreational hunting and supposed conservation efforts of big-game and ranch hunting, but also the observed decline in animal species that are targets for trophy hunting. [[File:Alces alces elan trophee chateau Tanlay.jpg|thumbnail|[[Moose]] head and deer [[antler]]s mounted as hunting trophies]]
+A hunting trophy is an item prepared from the body of a [[game animal]] killed by a [[hunter]] and kept as a [[souvenir]]. Often, the [[head (anatomy)|head]]s or entire bodies are processed by a [[taxidermy|taxidermist]], although sometimes other body parts such as [[teeth]], [[tusk]]s, [[horn (anatomy)|horn]]s or hide are used as the trophies.
-== The hunting trophy ==
-[[File:Alces alces elan trophee chateau Tanlay.jpg|thumbnail|[[Moose]] head and deer [[antler]]s mounted as hunting trophies]]
-A hunting trophy is an item prepared from the body of a [[game animal]] killed by a [[hunter]] and kept as a [[souvenir]] of the successful hunting or fishing expedition.
-Often, the [[head (anatomy)|head]]s or entire bodies are processed by a [[taxidermy|taxidermist]], although sometimes other body parts such as [[teeth]], [[tusk]]s or [[horn (anatomy)|horn]]s are used as the trophies.
 Such trophies are often displayed in the hunter's home or office, and often in specially designed "trophy rooms," sometimes called "game rooms" or "gun rooms," in which the hunter's weaponry is displayed as well.<ref>[http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/news/article.asp?docKey=600-200910110625KRTRIB__BUSNEWS_62982-2SO76MJGKK56MUPV67QJKEVUF2&params=timestamp%7C%7C10/11/2009%206:25%20AM%20ET%7C%7Cheadline%7C%7COn%20the%20hunt%20for%20a%20gun%20room%3F%3A%20Business%20celebrates%20a%20love%20of%20firearms%2C%20hunting%20big%20animals%20%5BThe%20Hutchinson%20News%2C%20Kan.%5D%7C%7CdocSource%7C%7CKnight%20Ridder/Tribune%7C%7Cprovider%7C%7CACQUIREMEDIA&ric=MHP Business Week] On the hunt for a gun room?: Business celebrates a love of firearms, hunting big animals, Knight Ridder, 10/11/2009 (retrieved 10/11/2009)</ref>
-== Types of hunting ==
+== Types of Trophy Hunting ==
 === Big game hunting ===
 {{main|Big-game hunting}}
-A big-game hunter is a person engaged in the sport of trophy hunting for large  animals or [[Game (food)|game]]. Potential big game sought include, but are not limited to, [[bear]]s, [[big cat]]s, [[Hippopotamus|hippo]]s, [[elephant]]s, [[Rhinoceros|rhino]]s, [[Bovinae|buffalos]], [[moose]] and so forth.
+A big-game hunter is a person engaged in the sport of trophy hunting for large animals or [[Game (food)|game]]. Potential big game sought include, but are not limited to, [[bear]]s, [[big cat]]s, [[Hippopotamus|hippo]]s, [[elephant]]s, [[Rhinoceros|rhino]]s, [[Bovinae|buffalos]], and [[moose]].
+Advocates of trophy hunting cite the potential conservation efforts of big-game in trophy hunting practices.
-Tanzania has an estimated 40% of the population of lion (''Panthera leo''). Its wildlife authorities defend their success in keeping such numbers (as compared to countries like Kenya, where lion numbers have plummeted dramatically) as linked to the use of trophy hunting as a conservation tool. According to Alexander N. Songorwa, director of wildlife for the Tanzanian Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, trophy hunting generated roughly $75&nbsp;million for Tanzania’s economy from 2008 to 2011.<ref name="nytimes">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/18/opinion/saving-lions-by-killing-them.html|title=The New York Times|publisher=nytimes.com|accessdate=2014-02-22}}</ref>
-According to a 2012 article by P. Lindsey and G. Balme, if lion hunting was effectively precluded, trophy hunting could potentially become financially unviable across at least 59,538&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> that could result in a concomitant loss of habitat. However, the loss of lion hunting could have other potentially broader negative impacts including reduction of competitiveness of wildlife-based land uses relative to ecologically unfavourable alternatives. Restrictions on lion hunting may also reduce tolerance for the species among communities where local people benefit from trophy hunting, and may reduce funds available for anti-poaching.<ref name="plosone">{{cite web|url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0029332|title=PLOS ONE: The Significance of African Lions for the Financial Viability of Trophy Hunting and the Maintenance of Wild Land|publisher=plosone.org|accessdate=2014-02-22}}</ref>
 === Ranch hunting===
+Ranch hunting is different from big-game hunting in that the animals hunted are specifically bred on the ranch for trophy hunting purposes.
+Many species of game such as the Indian [[blackbuck]], [[nilgai]], [[chital|axis deer,]] [[barasingha]], the [[Iranian red sheep]], and variety of other species of deer, sheep, and antelope from Africa, Asia, and the Pacific islands were introduced to ranches in Texas and Florida for the sake of trophy hunting.
-Many species of game such as the Indian [[blackbuck]], [[nilgai]], [[chital|axis deer]] and [[barasingha]], the [[Iranian red sheep]], and variety of other species of deer, sheep, and antelope from Africa, Asia, and the Pacific islands were introduced to ranches in Texas and Florida for the sake of trophy hunting. These animals are typically hunted on a fee for each kill, with hunters paying $4000 or more to be able to hunt exotic game.<ref name="huntingtexastrophies">{{cite web|url=http://www.huntingtexastrophies.com/texas-hunting-packages/exotic-hunting/|title=Exotic Hunting &#124; Texas' Best Exotic Hunting Ranch &#124; V-Bharre Ranch &#124; Texas&#039; Premier Hunting Ranch &#124; V-Bharre Ranch|publisher=huntingtexastrophies.com|accessdate=2014-02-22}}</ref><ref name="continentalranchtexas">{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/http://www.continentalranchtexas.com/exotics.htm|title=Texas Exotic Hunting - Texas trophy exotic hunting in West TX.|publisher=web.archive.org|accessdate=2014-02-22}}</ref> As many of these species are endangered or threatened in their native habitat, the United States' government requires 10% of the hunting fee to be given to conservation efforts in the areas where these animals are indigenous. Hunting of endangered animals in the United States is normally illegal under the [[Endangered Species Act]], but is permitted on these ranches since the rare animals hunted there are not indigenous to the United States to begin with. The [[Humane Society of the United States]] has criticized these ranches and the people who hunt there for among other reasons that they are still hunting endangered animals even if the animals were raised specifically to be hunted.
+These animals are typically hunted on a fee for each kill, with hunters paying $4000 or more to be able to hunt exotic game.<ref name="huntingtexastrophies">{{cite web|url=http://www.huntingtexastrophies.com/texas-hunting-packages/exotic-hunting/|title=Exotic Hunting &#124; Texas' Best Exotic Hunting Ranch &#124; V-Bharre Ranch &#124; Texas&#039; Premier Hunting Ranch &#124; V-Bharre Ranch|publisher=huntingtexastrophies.com|accessdate=2014-02-22}}</ref><ref name="continentalranchtexas">{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/http://www.continentalranchtexas.com/exotics.htm|title=Texas Exotic Hunting - Texas trophy exotic hunting in West TX.|publisher=web.archive.org|accessdate=2014-02-22}}</ref> As many of these species are endangered or threatened in their native habitat, the United States' government requires 10% of the hunting fee to be given to conservation efforts in the areas where these animals are indigenous. Hunting of endangered animals in the United States is normally illegal under the [[Endangered Species Act]], but is permitted on these ranches since the rare animals hunted there are not indigenous to the United States to begin with.
-Wildlife ranches dedicated to sustainable hunting have proliferated greatly in some countries of Africa, notably, Namibia and South Africa. Wildlife has seen gigantic growth on private land in Southern Africa in the last three decades. It evolved from a mere cost, which was better eradicated to a great economic asset, once private ranchers were granted the rights of ownership over game.<ref>http://www.cic-wildlife.org/fileadmin/Press/Technical_Series/EN/5.pdf</ref> Wildlife ranches have contributed greatly to the South African economy, mostly through sustainable utilisitation of game as trophy animals.<ref>http://www.sawma.co.za/images/Dry_Gert_Full_paper.pdf</ref>
+The [[Humane Society of the United States]] has criticized these ranches and the people who hunt there for among other reasons that they are still hunting endangered animals even if the animals were raised specifically to be hunted.
-===Trophy hunting in Africa===
+=== Trophy hunting in Africa ===
-Trophy hunting has been practiced in Africa and is still a practiced conservation policy in many African countries. According to a study sponsored by CIC in partnership with FAO, the revenue generated by hunting tourism in seven SADC countries in 2008 is approximately US$190million.<ref>http://www.cic-wildlife.org/fileadmin/Press/Technical_Series/EN/8_.pdf</ref>
+Trophy hunting has been practiced in Africa and is still a practiced in many African countries. According to a study sponsored by International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC) in partnership with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the revenue generated by hunting tourism in seven Southern African Development Communities (SADC) in 2008 is approximately US $190 million.<ref>http://www.cic-wildlife.org/fileadmin/Press/Technical_Series/EN/8_.pdf</ref>
 In an opinion piece by Jeff Flocken of the International Fund for Animal Welfare, he states that "despite the wild claims that trophy hunting brings millions of dollars in revenue to local people in otherwise poor communities, there is no proof of this. Even pro-hunting organizations like the [[International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation]] have reported that only 3 percent of revenue from trophy hunting ever makes it to the communities affected by hunting. The rest goes to national governments or foreign-based outfitters. The money that does come into Africa from hunting pales in comparison to the billions and billions generated from tourists who come just to watch wildlife. If lions and other animals continue to disappear from Africa, this vital source of income—nonconsumptive tourism—will end, adversely impacting people all over Africa."<ref name="nationalgeographic">{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/08/130802-lions-trophy-hunting-extinction-opinion-animals-africa-conservation/|title=Opinion: Why Are We Still Hunting Lions?|publisher=news.nationalgeographic.com|accessdate=2014-02-22}}</ref>
 However, South African Environmental Affairs Minister, [[Edna Molewa]], contradicts Flocken's conclusions by stating that the hunting industry has contributed millions to South Africa's economy in past years. In the 2010 hunting season, total revenue of approximately R1.1-billion was generated by the local and trophy hunting industries collectively. "This amount only reflects the revenue generated through accommodation and species fees. The true revenue is therefore substantially higher, as this amount does not even include revenue generated through the associated industries as a result of the multiplier effect," according to Molewa.<ref>http://mg.co.za/article/2012-10-30-molewa-hunting-brings-much-to-south-africas-economy</ref>
+==Economic Influence ==
-[[Botswana]] banned trophy hunting in 2014, and now villagers claim they get no income from trophy hunters, and suffer from damage from elephants and buffaloes damaging their food crop fields and lions killing their [[livestock]].<ref>{{Cite news|title = A Hunting Ban Saps a Village’s Livelihood|url = http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/13/world/a-hunting-ban-saps-a-villages-livelihood.html|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 2015-09-12|access-date = 2015-09-13|issn = 0362-4331|first = Norimitsu|last = Onishi}}</ref> Some conservationists claim trophy hunting is more effective for wildlife management than a complete hunting ban.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Outcry for Cecil the Lion Could Undercut Conservation Efforts|url = http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/11/world/africa/outcry-for-cecil-the-lion-could-undercut-conservation-efforts.html|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 2015-08-10|access-date = 2015-09-13|issn = 0362-4331|first = Norimitsu|last = Onishi}}</ref>
-==Conservation tool==
 {{unbalanced section|September=2015|date=September 2015}}
 According to the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]], trophy hunting "provides an economic incentive" for ranchers to continue to breed those species, and that hunting "reduces the threat of the species' extinction".<ref>http://www.fws.gov/policy/library/2005/05-17432.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.cbsnews.com/news/can-hunting-endangered-animals-save-the-species/</ref>
+Wildlife ranches dedicated to sustainable hunting have proliferated greatly in some countries of Africa, notably, Namibia and South Africa. Wildlife has seen gigantic growth on private land in Southern Africa in the last three decades. It evolved from a mere cost, which was better eradicated to a great economic asset, once private ranchers were granted the rights of ownership over game.<ref>http://www.cic-wildlife.org/fileadmin/Press/Technical_Series/EN/5.pdf</ref> Wildlife ranches have contributed greatly to the South African economy, mostly through sustainable utilisitation of game as trophy animals.<ref>http://www.sawma.co.za/images/Dry_Gert_Full_paper.pdf</ref>
-According to [[Richard Conniff]], Namibia is home to 1,750 of the roughly 5,000 black rhinos surviving in the wild because it allows trophy hunting. Its mountain zebra population has also increased to 27,000 from 1,000 in 1982. Elephants, which are gunned down elsewhere for their ivory, have gone to 20,000 from 15,000 in 1995. Lions, which were on the brink of extinction "from Senegal to Kenya", are increasing in Namibia.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/21/opinion/a-trophy-hunt-thats-good-for-rhinos.html</ref>
+The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] recognizes that trophy hunting, when well-managed, can be sustainable and generate significant economic incentives for the conservation of target species and their habitats outside of protected areas, as well as support local livelihoods.<ref>IUCN Species Survival Commission (2012). [http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_ssc_guiding_principles_on_trophy_hunting_ver1_09aug2012.pdf Guiding Principles on Trophy Hunting as a Tool for Creating Conservation Incentives].</ref>
+=== Economic Benefits of Trophy Hunting ===
+According to [[Richard Conniff]], Namibia is home to 1,750 of the roughly 5,000 black rhinos surviving in the wild because it allows trophy hunting. Its mountain zebra population has also increased to 27,000 from 1,000 in 1982. Elephants, which are gunned down elsewhere for their ivory, have gone to 20,000 from 15,000 in 1995.
+Lions, which were on the brink of extinction "from Senegal to Kenya", are increasing in Namibia.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/21/opinion/a-trophy-hunt-thats-good-for-rhinos.html</ref>
 On the contrary, Kenya, which banned trophy hunting in 1977, has seen a 70 percent decline of wild animals according to Laurence Frank, a zoology researcher at the [[University of California at Berkeley]] and director of the conservation group ''Living with Lions''. Because the government has no incentive to protect wild animals, effective enforcement on protecting animals has been a disaster according to Frank.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/04/opinion/the-ethics-of-safari-hunting-in-africa.html</ref>
+According to a 2012 article by P. Lindsey and G. Balme, if lion hunting was effectively precluded, trophy hunting could potentially become financially unviable across at least 59,538&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> that could result in a concomitant loss of habitat.
+However, the loss of lion hunting could have other potentially broader negative impacts including reduction of competitiveness of wildlife-based land uses relative to ecologically unfavourable alternatives.
+Restrictions on lion hunting may also reduce tolerance for the species among communities where local people benefit from trophy hunting, and may reduce funds available for anti-poaching.<ref name="plosone">{{cite web|url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0029332|title=PLOS ONE: The Significance of African Lions for the Financial Viability of Trophy Hunting and the Maintenance of Wild Land|publisher=plosone.org|accessdate=2014-02-22}}</ref>
+Tanzania has an estimated 40% of the population of lions. Its wildlife authorities defend their success in keeping such numbers (as compared to countries like Kenya, where lion numbers have plummeted dramatically) as linked to the use of trophy hunting as a conservation tool. According to Alexander N. Songorwa, director of wildlife for the Tanzanian Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, trophy hunting generated roughly $75&nbsp;million for Tanzania’s economy from 2008 to 2011.<ref name="nytimes">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/18/opinion/saving-lions-by-killing-them.html|title=The New York Times|publisher=nytimes.com|accessdate=2014-02-22}}</ref>
 The [[National Wildlife Federation]] supports hunting because "under professional regulation, wildlife populations are a renewable natural resource that can safely sustain taking." <ref>http://cjonline.com/stories/031608/out_258309516.shtml</ref>
@@ Line 52: / Line 60: @@
 Proponents of trophy hunting claim many hunting fees go toward conservation, such as portions of [[hunting license]] fees, hunting tags and ammunition taxes. In addition, private groups, such as the [[National Shooting Sports Foundation]], which contributed more than $400,000 in 2005,<ref>[http://www.nssf.org/news/PR_idx.cfm?PRloc=common/PR/&PR=061405.cfm State Agencies Receive Over $420,000 in Grants Through Hunting Heritage Partnership]</ref> and smaller private groups also contribute significant funds; for example, the Grand Slam Club Ovis has raised more than $6.3&nbsp;million to date for the conservation of sheep.<ref>[http://www.wildsheep.org/conservation/funding.htm Grand Slam Club Ovis]</ref>
-===Studies===
+===Pro-Trophy Hunting Studies===
 A 2005 paper by Nigel Leader-Williams and colleagues in the ''Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy'' asserted that the legalization of white rhinoceros hunting in South Africa motivated private landowners to reintroduce the species onto their lands. As a result, white rhinos increased from fewer than one hundred individuals to more than 11,000.<ref name="conservationmagazine.org">http://conservationmagazine.org/2014/01/can-trophy-hunting-reconciled-conservation/</ref>
@@ Line 63: / Line 71: @@
 Trophy hunting has been considered essential for providing economic incentives to conserve large carnivores according to other research studies in ''Conservation Biology'',<ref name="cbs.umn.edu">http://www.cbs.umn.edu/sites/default/files/public/downloads/Effects%20of%20trophy%20hunting%20on%20populations%20of%20lions%20and%20leopards%20in%20TZ.pdf</ref> ''Journal of Sustainable Tourism'',<ref>http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669589708667294#.U8G7cfkuigY</ref> ''Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use'',<ref>http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-011-4012-6_15</ref> and ''Animal Conservation''.<ref name="cbs.umn.edu"/><ref>http://www.ewca.gov.et/sites/default/files/Lindsey%20et%20al%20%202006%20Potential%20of%20trophy%20hunting%20to%20create%20incentives%20for%20wildlifeconservationin%20Africa.pdf</ref>
+==Controversy ==
-==Positions of conservation organizations==
-Organizations that support trophy hunting as a tool for conservation include [[National Wildlife Federation|The National Wildlife Federation]], [[The Wilderness Society (United States)|The Wildness Society]], [[Izaak Walton League|The Izzaak Walton League of America]], [[North American Model of Wildlife Conservation|North American Wildlife Foundation]], Outdoor Writers Association of America, [[Ducks Unlimited]], [[American Forests|The American Forestry Association]], [[U.S. Sportsmen's Alliance|Wildlife Legislative Fund of America]], Wildlife Management Institute, and [[The Wildlife Society]].<ref name="nssf.org">http://www.nssf.org/safety/lit/WTSAH10.pdf</ref><ref name="animalliberationfront.com">http://www.animalliberationfront.com/AR_Orgs/Wildlife%20Organizations%20Positions%20on%20Hunting.htm</ref>
-Organizations that are neutral and do not oppose trophy hunting include [[The National Audubon Society]], [[Defenders of Wildlife]], [[The Sierra Club]], and [[World Wildlife Fund]].<ref name="nssf.org"/><ref name="animalliberationfront.com"/>
-Organizations that oppose trophy hunting are [[The Humane Society of the United States]], The American Humane Association and [[Friends of Animals]].<ref name="nssf.org"/><ref name="animalliberationfront.com"/>
-==Opposition==
+=== Opposition ===
 In the 1970s and 1980s, people in many Western countries assumed a pejorative association regarding hunting for trophy.
@@ Line 81: / Line 84: @@
 [[Emirates Airlines]] placed an embargo by refusing to transport the remains of wild trophy hunted animals such as [[big cats]], rhinos and elephants.<ref>http://traveller24.news24.com/News/Airlines-send-SA-trophy-hunting-industry-into-tailspin-with-cargo-ban-20150514</ref>
-==Solutions==
+=== Support ===
+Organizations that support trophy hunting as a tool for conservation include [[National Wildlife Federation|The National Wildlife Federation]], [[The Wilderness Society (United States)|The Wildness Society]], [[Izaak Walton League|The Izzaak Walton League of America]], [[North American Model of Wildlife Conservation|North American Wildlife Foundation]], Outdoor Writers Association of America, [[Ducks Unlimited]], [[American Forests|The American Forestry Association]], [[U.S. Sportsmen's Alliance|Wildlife Legislative Fund of America]], Wildlife Management Institute, and [[The Wildlife Society]].<ref name="nssf.org">http://www.nssf.org/safety/lit/WTSAH10.pdf</ref><ref name="animalliberationfront.com">http://www.animalliberationfront.com/AR_Orgs/Wildlife%20Organizations%20Positions%20on%20Hunting.htm</ref>
+Organizations that are neutral and do not oppose trophy hunting include [[The National Audubon Society]], [[Defenders of Wildlife]], [[The Sierra Club]], and [[World Wildlife Fund]].<ref name="nssf.org"/><ref name="animalliberationfront.com"/>
-The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] recognizes that trophy hunting, when well-managed, can be sustainable and generate significant economic incentives for the conservation of target species and their habitats outside of protected areas, as well as support local livelihoods.<ref>IUCN Species Survival Commission (2012). [http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_ssc_guiding_principles_on_trophy_hunting_ver1_09aug2012.pdf Guiding Principles on Trophy Hunting as a Tool for Creating Conservation Incentives].</ref>
+===Proposed Solutions ===
 However, when poorly managed, trophy hunting can cause negative ecological impacts for the target species such as altered age/sex structures,<ref>Milner JM, Nilsen EB & Andreassen HP. (2007). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17298509 Demographic side effects of selective hunting in ungulates and carnivores]. ''Conservation Biology''. '''21'''(1), 36-47.</ref> social disruption,<ref>Rasmussen HB, Okello JB, Wittemyer G, Siegismund HR, Arctander P, Vollrath F, et al. (2007). [http://www.beheco.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/doi/10.1093/beheco/arm093 Age- and tactic-related paternity success in male African elephants]. ''Behavioral ecology''. '''19'''(1): 9-15.</ref><ref>Lindsey PA, Balme GA, Funston P, Henschel P, Hunter L, Madzikanda H, et al.(2013). [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3776777&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract The trophy hunting of African lions: scale, current management practices and factors undermining sustainability].''PLoS One''. '''8'''(9).</ref><ref>Sogbohossou E A, Bauer H, Loveridge A, Funston PJ, De Snoo GR, Sinsin B, et al. (2014). [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3885576&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract Social structure of lions (Panthera leo) is affected by management in Pendjari Biosphere Reserve, Benin]. ''PLoS One''. '''9'''(1).</ref> deleterious genetic effects,<ref>Crosmary W-G, Loveridge a. J, Ndaimani H, Lebel S, Booth V, Côté SD, et al. (2013). [http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/acv.12043 Trophy hunting in Africa: long-term trends in antelope horn size]. ''Animal Conservation''. '''16'''(6):648–60.</ref><ref>Nuzzo MC & Traill LW. (2013). [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aje.12104/full What 50 years of trophy hunting records illustrate for hunted African elephant and bovid populations]. ''African Journal of Ecology''. '''52'''(2):250-253.</ref><ref>Festa-Bianchet M, Pelletier F, Jorgenson JT, Feder C & Hubbs A. (2014). [http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jwmg.644 Decrease in horn size and increase in age of trophy sheep in Alberta over 37 years]. ''Journal of Wildlife Management''. '''78'''(1):133-41.</ref> and even population declines in the event of excessive off-takes,<ref>Loveridge A, Searle A, Murindagomo F & Macdonald D. (2007). [http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320706003843 The impact of sport-hunting on the population dynamics of an African lion population in a protected area]. ''Biological Conservation''. '''134'''(4):548–58.</ref><ref>Packer C, Brink H, Kissui BM, Maliti H, Kushnir H & Caro T. (2011). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20825444 Effects of trophy hunting on lion and leopard populations in Tanzania]. ''Conservation Biology''. '''25'''(1):142–53.</ref> as well as threaten the conservation<ref>Hussain S. (2003). [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=141051&fileId=S0030605303000085 The status of the snow leopard in Pakistan and its conflict with local farmers]. ''Oryx''. '''37'''(1):26-33.</ref> and influence the behaviour<ref>Grignolio S, Merli E, Bongi P, Ciuti S & Apollonio M. (2010). [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320710004702 Effects of hunting with hounds on a non-target species living on the edge of a protected area]. ''Biological Conservation''. '''144'''(1):641-649</ref> of non-target species. The conservation role of the industry is also hindered by governments and hunting operators that fail to devolve adequate benefits to local communities, reducing incentives for them to protect wildlife,<ref>Nelson F, Nshala R & Rodgers WA. (2007). [http://conservationandsociety.org/article.asp?issn=0972-4923;year=2007;volume=5;issue=2;spage=232;epage=261;aulast=Nelson The Evolution and Reform of Tanzanian Wildlife Management]. ''Conservation & Society''. '''5'''(2):232-261.</ref><ref>Booth VR. (2010). Contribution of Hunting Tourism: How Significant Is This to National Economies. Joint publication of [http://www.fao.org/home/en/ FAO] and [http://www.cic-wildlife.org/ CIC].</ref><ref>Campbell R. (2013). [http://www.ifaw.org/sites/default/files/Ecolarge-2013-200m-question.pdf The $200 million question. How much does trophy hunting really contribute to African communities? A report for the African Lion Coalition]. ''Economists at large, Melbourne, Australia''.</ref> and by unethical activities, such as shooting from vehicles and [[canned hunting]], conducted by some operators which attract negative press and foster support for hunting bans.<ref name=lindsey1>Lindsey PA, Frank LG, Alexander R, Mathieson A & Romañach SS. (2007). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17531065 Trophy hunting and conservation in Africa: problems and one potential solution]. ''Conservation Biology''. '''21'''(3):880–3.</ref>
+==== Certificate System ====
 One proposed solution to these problems is the development of a certification system, whereby hunting operators are rated on three criteria.<ref name=lindsey1 /><ref>Lewis D & Jackson J. (2005). Safari hunting and conservation on communal land in southern Africa. Pages 239-251 in R. Woodroffe, S. Thirgood, and A. Rabinowitz, editors. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=6vNzRzcjntAC&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=People+and+wildlife:+conflict+or+coexistence&ots=j48RzOSp6c&sig=ukDFjG_9dSiVJDbPqwpKm20_md8#v=onepage&q=People%20and%20wildlife%3A%20conflict%20or%20coexistence&f=false People and wildlife: conflict or coexistence?] Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.</ref>
 # In terms of their commitment to conservation through actions such as adherence to quotas and contributions towards [[anti-poaching]] efforts.
 # The extent to which they benefit and involve local communities.
 # Upon their upholding of agreed upon ethical standards.
-[[File:The concern of hunters towards the conservation, ethical and social issues that hunting raises.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure.1: The unwillingness of hunters to hunt under conditions detrimental to conservation and their willingness to hunt under conditions beneficial to local livelihoods, and operators' perceptions of hunters' willingness to hunt. Adapted from [http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2006.00034.x Lindsey et al (2006)]]]
+===== Challenges to the Certificate System =====
+Introducing a certification system however remains challenging because it requires co-operation between hunting operators, conservationists and governments.<ref>Nelson F, Lindsey PA & Balme G. (2013). [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9016211&fileId=S003060531200035XTrophy hunting and lion conservation: a question of governance?]. ''Oryx''. '''47'''(4):501-509.</ref><ref>Selier SJ, Page BR, Vanak AT & Slotow R. (2014). [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jwmg.641/full Sustainability of elephant hunting across international borders in southern Africa: A case study of the greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area]. ''Journal of Wildlife Management''. '''78'''(1):122-132.</ref> It also requires difficult questions to be answered, including; what constitutes ethical hunting? Who constitutes local communities and what represents adequate benefits for them?<ref name="lindsey1" /> Some researchers also continue to express concern regarding what the larger messages of sanctioned trophy hunts for [[endangered]] animals might be, and the conservation consequences these might entail. For example, it has been suggested that contributions towards conservation organizations could decline because allowing hunting of a species could convey the message that it does not require saving. So even if the aforementioned problems associated with trophy hunting were addressed at a local level through the implementation of a certification system, the positive impacts for conservation may be outweighed by powerful global messages sent to distant individuals who can also influence conservation outcomes.<ref>Buckley R. (2014). [http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/14.WB.008 Mixed signals from hunting rare wildlife]. ''Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment''. '''12'''(6):321-322.</ref>[[File:The concern of hunters towards the conservation, ethical and social issues that hunting raises.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure.1: The unwillingness of hunters to hunt under conditions detrimental to conservation and their willingness to hunt under conditions beneficial to local livelihoods, and operators' perceptions of hunters' willingness to hunt. Adapted from [http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2006.00034.x Lindsey et al (2006)]]]
 ===Profile of a trophy hunter===
-A study, published in the journal ''Animal Conservation'',<ref name="conservationmagazine.org"/> and led by Peter Lindsey of [http://www.mpala.org/ Kenya's Mpala Research Centre], concluded that most trophy hunters are concerned about the conservation, ethical, and social issues that hunting raises.<ref>Lindsey PA, Alexander R, Frank LG, Mathieson A & Romanach SS. (2006). [http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2006.00034.x Potential of trophy hunting to create incentives for wildlife conservation in Africa where alternative wildlife-based land uses may not be viable]. ''Conservation Biology''. '''9'''(3):283-291.</ref> The study interviewed 150 Americans who had hunted in Africa before, or who planned to do so within three years. For example, hunters were much less willing to hunt in areas where [[African wild dogs]] or [[cheetahs]] were illegally shot than their hunting operators perceived, and they also showed greater concern for social issues than their operators realized, with a huge willingness to hunt in areas were local people lived and benefited from hunting (Fig.1). Eighty-six percent of hunters told the researchers they preferred hunting in an area where they knew that a portion of the proceeds went back into local communities.<ref name="conservationmagazine.org"/>
+A study, published in the journal ''Animal Conservation'',<ref name="conservationmagazine.org"/> and led by Peter Lindsey of [http://www.mpala.org/ Kenya's Mpala Research Centre], concluded that most trophy hunters are concerned about the conservation, ethical, and social issues that hunting raises.<ref>Lindsey PA, Alexander R, Frank LG, Mathieson A & Romanach SS. (2006). [http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2006.00034.x Potential of trophy hunting to create incentives for wildlife conservation in Africa where alternative wildlife-based land uses may not be viable]. ''Conservation Biology''. '''9'''(3):283-291.</ref> The study interviewed 150 Americans who had hunted in Africa before, or who planned to do so within three years. For example, hunters were much less willing to hunt in areas where [[African wild dogs]] or [[cheetahs]] were illegally shot than their hunting operators perceived, and they also showed greater concern for social issues than their operators realized, with a huge willingness to hunt in areas were local people lived and benefited from hunting (Fig.1). Eighty-six percent of hunters told the researchers they preferred hunting in an area where they knew that a portion of the proceeds went back into local communities.<ref name="conservationmagazine.org"/> A certification system could therefore allow hunters to select those operators who benefit local people and conduct themselves in a conservation-friendly manner.<ref name="lindsey1" />
+== In the Media ==
-A certification system could therefore allow hunters to select those operators who benefit local people and conduct themselves in a conservation-friendly manner.<ref name=lindsey1 />
+The controversy surrounding trophy hunting was further ignited when an American dentist Walter Palmer gained internet infamy when a picture of him and the dead lion Cecil went viral.<ref>{{Cite web|title = American Public Roars After It Gets a Glimpse of International Trophy Hunting of Lions · A Humane Nation|url = http://blog.humanesociety.org/wayne/2015/07/cecil-lion-killed-by-trophy-hunter.html|website = A Humane Nation|accessdate = 2015-11-21|language = en-US}}</ref>
+== Banning of Trophy Hunting ==
-===Issues===
+[[Botswana]] banned trophy hunting in 2014, and now villagers claim they get no income from trophy hunters, suffer from damaged crop fields caused by elephants and buffaloes, and lions killing their [[livestock]].<ref>{{Cite news|title = A Hunting Ban Saps a Village’s Livelihood|url = http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/13/world/a-hunting-ban-saps-a-villages-livelihood.html|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 2015-09-12|access-date = 2015-09-13|issn = 0362-4331|first = Norimitsu|last = Onishi}}</ref> Some conservationists claim trophy hunting is more effective for wildlife management than a complete hunting ban.
-Introducing a certification system however remains challenging because it requires co-operation between hunting operators, conservationists and governments.<ref>Nelson F, Lindsey PA & Balme G. (2013). [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9016211&fileId=S003060531200035XTrophy hunting and lion conservation: a question of governance?]. ''Oryx''. '''47'''(4):501-509.</ref><ref>Selier SJ, Page BR, Vanak AT & Slotow R. (2014). [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jwmg.641/full Sustainability of elephant hunting across international borders in southern Africa: A case study of the greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area]. ''Journal of Wildlife Management''. '''78'''(1):122-132.</ref> It also requires difficult questions to be answered, including; what constitutes ethical hunting? Who constitutes local communities and what represents adequate benefits for them?<ref name=lindsey1 /> Some researchers also continue to express concern regarding what the larger messages of sanctioned trophy hunts for [[endangered]] animals might be, and the conservation consequences these might entail. For example, it has been suggested that contributions towards conservation organizations could decline because allowing hunting of a species could convey the message that it does not require saving. So even if the aforementioned problems associated with trophy hunting were addressed at a local level through the implementation of a certification system, the positive impacts for conservation may be outweighed by powerful global messages sent to distant individuals who can also influence conservation outcomes.<ref>Buckley R. (2014). [http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/14.WB.008 Mixed signals from hunting rare wildlife]. ''Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment''. '''12'''(6):321-322.</ref>
 ==Trophies==