Moose

Moose Temporal range: Late Pleistocene–Recent PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓
A bull (male) moose in Alaska, US
A cow (female) moose in Alaska, US
Conservation status
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Secure  (NatureServe)[2]
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Artiodactyla
Family:	Cervidae
Subfamily:	Capreolinae
Tribe:	Alceini
Genus:	Alces Gray, 1821
Species:	A. alces
Binomial name
Alces alces (Linnaeus, 1758)
Moose range map
Synonyms
Cervus alces Linnaeus, 1758

The moose (pl.: 'moose'; used in North America) or elk (pl.: 'elk' or 'elks'; used in

Hunting shaped the relationship between moose and humans, both in Eurasia and North America. Prior to the colonial era (around 1600-1700 CE), moose were one of many valuable sources of sustenance for certain tribal groups and First Nations. Hunting and habitat loss have reduced the moose's range; this fragmentation has led to sightings of "urban moose" in some areas.

The moose has been reintroduced to some of its former habitats. Currently, the greatest populations occur in

The word "elk" remained in usage because of English-speakers' familiarity with the species in Continental Europe; however, without any living animals around to serve as a reference, the meaning became rather vague, and by the 17th century "elk" had a meaning similar to "large deer".^[7] Dictionaries of the 18th century simply described "elk" as a deer that was "as large as a horse".^[8]

The word "moose" had first entered English by 1606

On average, an adult moose stands 1.4–2.1 m (4 ft 7 in – 6 ft 11 in) high at the shoulder, which is more than 30 centimetres (1 ft) higher than the next-largest deer on average, the

Bull moose have antlers like other members of the deer family. The size and growth rate of antlers is determined by diet and age.^[20] Size and symmetry in the number of antler points signals bull moose health and cows may select mates based on antler size and symmetry.^[21] Bull moose use their antlers to display dominance, to discourage competition, and to spar or fight rivals.^[20]

The male's antlers grow as cylindrical beams projecting on each side of the head at right angles to the midline of the skull, and then fork. The lower prong of this fork may be either simple, or divided into two or three tines, with some flattening. Most moose have antlers that are broad and palmate (flat) with tines (points) along the outer edge.^[20] Within the ecologic range of the moose in Europe, northern populations display the palmate pattern of antlers, while the antlers of European moose residing the southerly portion of its range are typically of the cervina dendritic pattern and comparatively small, perhaps due to evolutionary pressures of hunting by humans, who prize the large palmate antlers. European moose with antlers intermediate between the palmate and the dendritic form are found in the middle of the north–south range.^[22] Moose with antlers have more acute hearing than those without antlers; a study of trophy antlers using a microphone found that the palmate antler acts as a parabolic reflector, amplifying sound at the moose's ear.^[23]

The antlers of mature Alaskan adult bull moose (5 to 12 years old) have a normal maximum spread greater than 200 centimeters (79 in). By the age of 13, moose antlers decline in size and symmetry. The widest spread recorded was 210 centimeters (83 in) across. An Alaskan moose also holds the record for the heaviest weight at 36 kilograms (79 lb).^[20]

Antler beam diameter, not the number of tines, indicates age.^[20] In North America, moose (A. a. americanus) antlers are usually larger than those of Eurasian moose and have two lobes on each side, like a butterfly. Eurasian moose antlers resemble a seashell, with a single lobe on each side.^[20] In the North Siberian moose (A. a. bedfordiae), the posterior division of the main fork divides into three tines, with no distinct flattening. In the common moose (A. a. alces) this branch usually expands into a broad palmation, with one large tine at the base and a number of smaller snags on the free border. There is, however, a Scandinavian breed of the common moose in which the antlers are simpler and recall those of the East Siberian animals. The palmation appears to be more marked in North American moose than in the typical Scandinavian moose.

After the mating season males drop their antlers to conserve energy for the winter. A new set of antlers will then regrow in the spring. Antlers take three to five months to fully develop, making them one of the fastest growing animal organs. Antler growth is "nourished by an extensive system of blood vessels in the skin covering, which contains numerous hair follicles that give it a 'velvet' texture."^[20] This requires intense grazing on a highly-nutritious diet. By September the velvet is removed by rubbing and thrashing which changes the colour of the antlers. Immature bulls may not shed their antlers for the winter, but retain them until the following spring. Birds, carnivores and rodents eat dropped antlers as they are full of protein and moose themselves will eat antler velvet for the nutrients.^[20]

If a bull moose is

In extremely rare circumstances, a cow moose may grow antlers. This is usually attributed to a hormone imbalance.[27]

Proboscis and olfaction

The moose proboscis is distinctive among living cervids due to its large size; it also features nares that can be sealed shut when the moose is browsing aquatic vegetation. The moose proboscis likely evolved as an adaptation to aquatic browsing, with loss of the rhinarium, and development of a superior olfactory column separate from an inferior respiratory column.^[28] This separation contributes to the moose's keen sense of smell, which they employ to detect water sources, to find food under snow, and to detect mates or predators.^[29][28]

Hooves

As with all members of the order Artiodactyla (

Both male and female moose have a dewlap or bell,^[36] which is a fold of skin under the chin. Its exact function is unknown, but some morphologic analyses suggest a cooling (thermoregulatory) function.^[37] Other theories include a fitness signal in mating, as a visual and olfactory signal, or as a dominance signal by males, as are the antlers.^[38]

Ecology and biology

Diet

The moose is a browsing herbivore and is capable of consuming many types of plant or fruit. The average adult moose needs to consume 96 megajoules (23,000 kilocalories) per day to maintain its body weight.^[39] Much of a moose's energy is derived from terrestrial vegetation, mainly consisting of forbs and other non-grasses, and fresh shoots from trees such as willow and birch. As these terrestrial plants are rather low in sodium, as much as half of its diet usually consists of aquatic plants, including lilies and pondweed,^[40] which while lower in energy content, provide the moose with its sodium requirements.^[41] In winter, moose are often drawn to roadways, to lick salt that is used as a snow and ice melter.^[42] A typical moose, weighing 360 kg (794 lb), can eat up to 32 kg (71 lb) of food per day.^[41]

Moose lack upper front

Moose are excellent swimmers and are known to wade into water to eat aquatic plants. This trait serves a second purpose in cooling down the moose on summer days and ridding itself of black flies. Moose are thus attracted to marshes and river banks during warmer months as both provide suitable vegetation to eat and water to wet themselves in. Moose have been known to dive over 5.5 metres (18 ft) to reach plants on lake bottoms,^[48] and the complex snout may assist the moose in this type of feeding. Moose are the only deer that are capable of feeding underwater.^[49] As an adaptation for feeding on plants underwater, the nose is equipped with fatty pads and muscles that close the nostrils when exposed to water pressure, preventing water from entering the nose.^[50] Other species can pluck plants from the water too, but these need to raise their heads in order to swallow.

This fenced-in area is part of a long-term research project to examine the effects of moose browsing on plant biodiversity.

Moose are not grazing animals but browsers (concentrate selectors). Like giraffes, moose carefully select foods with less fiber and more concentrations of nutrients. Thus, the moose's digestive system has evolved to accommodate this relatively low-fiber diet. Unlike most hooved, domesticated animals (ruminants), moose cannot digest hay, and feeding it to a moose can be fatal.^[51][52] The moose's varied and complex diet is typically expensive for humans to provide, and free-range moose require a lot of forested hectarage for sustainable survival, which is one of the main reasons moose have never been widely domesticated.^{[citation needed]}

• 
  Bark stripping
• 
  Bull moose eating a

  fireweed

  plant
• 
  Bull moose browses a beaver pond

Natural predators

A full-grown moose has few enemies except

In some areas, moose are the primary source of food for wolves. Moose usually flee upon detecting wolves. Wolves usually follow moose at a distance of 100 to 400 meters (300 to 1,300 ft), occasionally at a distance of two to three kilometers (1 to 2 mi). Attacks from wolves against young moose may last seconds, though sometimes they can be drawn out for days with adults. Sometimes, wolves will chase moose into shallow streams or onto frozen rivers, where their mobility is greatly impeded. Moose will sometimes stand their ground and defend themselves by charging at the wolves or lashing out at them with their powerful hooves. Wolves typically kill moose by tearing at their haunches and

Research into moose predation suggests that their response to perceived threats is learned rather than instinctual. In practical terms this means moose are more vulnerable in areas where wolf or bear populations were decimated in the past but are now rebounding. These same studies suggest, however, that moose learn quickly and adapt, fleeing an area if they hear or smell wolves, bears, or scavenger birds such as ravens.[72]

Moose are also subject to various diseases and forms of parasitism. In northern Europe, the moose botfly is a parasite whose range seems to be spreading.^[73]

Parasites

Moose typically carry a heavy burden of parasites, both externally and internally. Parasitosis is an important cause of moose morbidity and mortality and also contributes to vulnerability to predators.

Moose are mostly diurnal. They are generally solitary with the strongest bonds between mother and calf. Although moose rarely gather in groups, there may be several in close proximity during the mating season.

Rutting and mating occurs in September and October. During the rut, mature bulls will cease feeding completely for a period of approximately two weeks; this fasting behavior has been attributed to neurophysiological changes related to redeployment of olfaction for detection of moose urine and moose cows.^[78] The males are polygynous and will seek several females to breed with. During this time both sexes will call to each other. Males produce heavy grunting sounds that can be heard from up to 500 metres (1,600 ft) away, while females produce wail-like sounds.^[79] Males will fight for access to females. Initially, the males assess which of them is dominant and one bull may retreat, however, the interaction can escalate to a fight using their antlers.

Female moose have an eight-month gestation period, usually bearing one calf, or twins if food is plentiful,^[80] in May or June.^[81] Twinning can run as high as 30% to 40% with good nutrition^[82] Newborn moose have fur with a reddish hue in contrast to the brown appearance of an adult. The young will stay with the mother until just before the next young are born. The life span of an average moose is about 15–25 years. Moose populations are stable at 25 calves for every 100 cows at 1 year of age. With availability of adequate nutrition, mild weather, and low predation, moose have a huge potential for population expansion.^[82]

• 
  (newborn)
  Calves nursing in spring.
• 
  (3 months)
  Calves stay near their mothers at all times.
• 
  (9 months)
  This calf is almost ready to leave its mother.
• 
  (10–11 months)
  This yearling was probably recently chased away by its pregnant mother.

Aggression

Moose are not typically aggressive towards humans, but will be aggressive when provoked or frightened. Moose attack more people than

Moose are unpredictable. They are most likely to attack if annoyed or harassed, or if approached too closely. A moose that has been harassed may vent its anger on anyone in the vicinity, and they often do not make distinctions between their tormentors and innocent passersby.^[

Moose cows are more likely to emit protest moans when courted by small males. This attracts the attention of large males, promotes male-male competition and violence, reduces harassment of cows by small males, and increases mating opportunities with large males.[89] This in turn means that the cow moose has at least a small degree of control over which bulls she mates with.^[90]

Moose often show aggression to other animals as well, especially predators. Bears are common predators of moose calves and, rarely, adults. Alaskan moose have been reported to successfully fend off attacks from both black and brown bears. Moose have been known to stomp attacking wolves, which makes them less preferred as prey to the wolves. Moose are fully capable of killing bears and wolves. In one rare event, a female moose killed two adult male wolves.^[91][92] A moose of either sex that is confronted by danger may let out a loud roar, more resembling that of a predator than a prey animal. European moose are often more aggressive than North American moose, such as the moose in Sweden, which often become very agitated at the sight of a predator. However, like all ungulates known to attack predators, the more aggressive individuals are always darker in color, with the darkest coloring usually in areas facing the opponent, thus serving as a natural warning to other animals.^[49]

Habitat, range, and distribution

Habitat

Moose require habitat with adequate edible plants (e.g., pond grasses, young trees and shrubs), cover from predators, and protection from extremely hot or cold weather. Moose travel among different habitats with the seasons to address these requirements.^[93] Moose are cold-adapted mammals with thickened skin, dense, heat-retaining coat, and a low surface:volume ratio, which provides excellent cold tolerance but poor heat tolerance. Moose survive hot weather by accessing shade or cooling wind, or by immersion in cool water. In hot weather, moose are often found wading or swimming in lakes or ponds. When heat-stressed, moose may fail to adequately forage in summer and may not gain adequate body fat to survive the winter. Also, moose cows may not calve without adequate summer weight gain. Moose require access to both young forest for browsing and mature forest for shelter and cover. Forest disturbed by fire and logging promotes the growth of fodder for moose. Moose also require access to mineral licks, safe places for calving and aquatic feeding sites.^[93]

Moose avoid areas with little or no snow as this increases the risk of predation by wolves and avoid areas with deep snow, as this impairs mobility. Thus, moose select habitat on the basis of trade-offs between risk of predation, food availability, and snow depth.^[94] With reintroduction of bison into boreal forest, there was some concern that bison would compete with moose for winter habitat, and thereby worsen the population decline of moose. However, this does not appear to be a problem. Moose prefer sub-alpine shrublands in early winter, while bison prefer wet sedge valley meadowlands in early winter. In late winter, moose prefer river valleys with deciduous forest cover or alpine terrain above the tree line, while bison preferred wet sedge meadowlands or sunny southern grassy slopes.^[95]

North America

After expanding for most of the 20th century, the moose population of North America has been in steep decline since the 1990s. Populations expanded greatly with improved habitat and protection, but now the moose population is declining rapidly.^[96] This decline has been attributed to opening of roads and landscapes into the northern range of moose, allowing deer to become populous in areas where they were not previously common. This encroachment by deer on moose habitat brought moose into contact with previously unfamiliar pathogens, including brainworm and liver fluke, and these parasites are believed to have contributed to the population decline of moose.^[97][98]

In

Washington Cascades.^[102][103] In the northwestern US, the range includes Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and smaller areas of Washington, and Oregon.^[104] Moose have extended their range southwards in the western Rocky Mountains, with initial sightings in Yellowstone National Park in 1868, and then to the northern slope of the Uinta Mountains in Utah in the first half of the twentieth century.^[105] This is the southernmost naturally established moose population in the United States.^[105] In 1978, a few breeding pairs were reintroduced in western Colorado, and the state's moose population is now more than 2,400.^[106]

In northeastern North America, the Eastern moose's history is very well documented: moose meat was a staple in the diet of indigenous peoples for centuries. The common name "moose" was brought into English from the word used by those who lived in present day coastal Rhode Island. The indigenous people often used moose hides for leather and its meat as an ingredient in pemmican, a type of dried jerky used as a source of sustenance in winter or on long journeys.^[107]

The historical range of the subspecies extended from well into Quebec, the Maritimes, and Eastern Ontario south to include all of New England finally ending in the very northeastern tip of Pennsylvania in the west, cutting off somewhere near the mouth of the Hudson River in the south. The moose has been extinct in much of the eastern U.S. for as long as 150 years, due to colonial era overhunting and destruction of its habitat: Dutch, French, and British colonial sources all attest to its presence in the mid 17th century from Maine south to areas within 160 kilometers (100 mi) of present-day Manhattan. However, by the 1870s, only a handful of moose existed in this entire region in very remote pockets of forest; less than 20% of suitable habitat remained.^[108]

Since the 1980s, however, moose populations have rebounded, thanks to regrowth of plentiful food sources,

Canadian Maritimes and Quebec. South of the Canada–US border, Maine has most of the population with a 2012 headcount of about 76,000 moose.^[109] Dispersals from Maine over the years have resulted in healthy, growing populations each in Vermont and New Hampshire, notably near bodies of water and as high up as 910 m (3,000 ft) above sea level in the mountains. In Massachusetts, moose had gone extinct by 1870, but re-colonized the state in the 1960s, with the population expanding from Vermont and New Hampshire; by 2010, the population was estimated at 850–950.^[110] Moose reestablished populations in eastern New York and Connecticut and appeared headed south towards the Catskill Mountains, a former habitat.^{[111][112][113][114][115][116][117]}

In the Midwest U.S., moose are primarily limited to the upper Great Lakes region, but strays, primarily immature males, have been found as far south as eastern Iowa.^[118] For unknown reasons, the moose population is declining rapidly in the Midwest.^[96]

Moose were successfully introduced on

Gulf of Saint Lawrence.^{[citation needed}

]

• 
  Cow and bull moose
• 
  Cow moose
• 
  Moose calf

Decline in population

Since the 1990s, moose populations have declined dramatically in much of

human-induced climate change.^[124] Biologists studying moose populations typically use warm-season, heat-stress thresholds of between 14 and 24 °C (57 and 75 °F).^[125] However, the minor average temperature increase of 0.83–1.11 °C (1.5–2 °F), over the last 100 years, has resulted in milder winters that induce favorable conditions for ticks, parasites and other invasive species to flourish within the southern range of moose habitat in North America.^[124][126] The moose population in New Hampshire fell from 7,500 in the early 2000s to a 2014 estimate of 4,000 and in Vermont the numbers were down to 2,200^[when?] from a high of 5,000 animals in 2005. Much of the decline has been attributed to the winter tick, which, between 2017 and 2019, accounted for 74% of all winter mortality and 91% of winter calf deaths in Vermont.^[127] Moose with heavy tick infections will rub their fur down to the skin raw trying to get the ticks off, making them look white when their outer coat rubs off. Locals call them ghost moose.^{[128][129][130][131]} Loss of the insulating winter coat through attempts to rid the moose of winter tick increases the risk of hypothermia in winter.^[132]

Europe and Asia

In

Magna Germania, as it appears in military and hunting accounts of the age. However, as the Roman era faded into medieval times, the beast slowly disappeared: soon after the reign of Charlemagne, the moose disappeared from France, where its range extended from Normandy in the north to the Pyrenees in the south. Farther east, it survived in Alsace and the Netherlands until the 9th century as the marshlands in the latter were drained and the forests were cleared away for feudal lands in the former. It was gone from Switzerland by the year 1000, from the western Czech Republic by 1300, from Mecklenburg in Germany

by c. 1600, and from Hungary and the Caucasus since the 18th and 19th century, respectively.

By the early 20th century, the last strongholds of the European moose appeared to be in Fennoscandian areas and patchy tracts of Russia, with a few migrants found in what is now Estonia and Lithuania. The USSR and Poland managed to restore portions of the range within its borders (such as the 1951 reintroduction into Kampinos National Park and the later 1958 reintroduction in Belarus), but political complications limited the ability to reintroduce it to other portions of its range. Attempts in 1930 and again in 1967 in marshland north of Berlin were unsuccessful. At present in Poland, populations are recorded in the Biebrza river valley, Kampinos, and in Białowieża Forest. It has migrated into other parts of Eastern Europe and has been spotted in eastern and southern Germany.^[133][134] Unsuccessful thus far in recolonizing these areas via natural dispersal from source populations in Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Czech Republic, and Slovakia, it appears to be having more success migrating south into the Caucasus. It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention.^[135][136]

In 2008, two moose were reintroduced into the Scottish Highlands^[137][138] in Alladale Wilderness Reserve.^[139] The moose disappeared as a breeding species from Denmark about 4,500 years ago (in the last century, a very small number have lived for periods in Zealand without establishing a population after swimming across the Øresund from Sweden),^[140] but in 2016-17 ten were introduced to Lille Vildmose from Sweden. In 2020, this population had increased to about 25 animals.^[141]

The East Asian moose populations confine themselves mostly to the territory of

Kamchatka River

and many surrounding regions. The population in the past 20 years has risen to over 2,900 animals.

The size of the moose varies. Following

trophy hunters

.

New Zealand

In 1900, an attempt to introduce moose into the Hokitika area failed; then in 1910 ten moose (four bulls and six cows) were introduced into Fiordland. This area is considered a less than suitable habitat, and subsequent low numbers of sightings and kills have led to some presumption of this population's failure.^[142] The last proven sighting of a moose in New Zealand was in 1952.^[143] However, a moose antler was found in 1972, and DNA tests showed that hair collected in 2002 was from a moose. There has been extensive searching, and while automated cameras failed to capture photographs, evidence was seen of bedding spots, browsing, and antler marks.^[144]

Evolutionary history

stag-moose

skeleton

Moose are members of the subfamily Capreolinae. Members of the moose lineage extend back into the Pliocene-Early Pleistocene.^[145] Some scientists group the moose and all its extinct relatives into one genus, Alces^[146], while others, such as Augusto Azzaroli, restrict Alces to the living species, placing the fossil species into the genera Cervalces (stag moose) and Libralces.^[145]

The earliest known species in the moose lineage is

wapiti. However, the rest of its skull structure, skeletal structure and teeth bore strong resemblance to those features that are unmistakable in modern moose, indicating a similar diet. Its antlers consisted of a horizontal bar 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) long, with no tines, ending in small palmations. Its skull and neck structure suggest an animal that fought using high-speed impacts, much like the Dall sheep, rather than locking and twisting antlers the way modern moose combat. Their long legs and bone structure suggest an animal that was adapted to running at high speeds over rough terrain.^[147][148]

Libralces gallicus was followed by

Middle Pleistocene to the beginning of the Late Pleistocene, probably somewhere in East Asia, with the earliest fossils of the species in Europe dating to the early Late Pleistocene. The modern moose only arrived in North America around 15,000 years ago, at the end of the Late Pleistocene.^[151]

Populations

North America:

• In Canada: There are an estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 moose,[152] with 150,000 in Newfoundland in 2007 descended from just four that were introduced in the 1900s.^[153]
• In United States: There are estimated to be around 300,000:
  • Alaska: The state's Department of Fish and Game estimated 200,000 in 2011.^[154]
  • Northeast: A wildlife ecologist estimated 50,000 in New York and New England in 2007, with expansion expected.^[116]
  • Rocky Mountain states: Wyoming is said to have the largest share in its six-state region, and its Fish and Game Commission estimated 7,692 in 2009.^[155]
  • Upper Midwest: Michigan 2000 on Isle Royale (2019) and an estimated 433 (in its
    Upper Peninsula) in 2011,^[156][157] Wisconsin, 20–40 (close to its border with Michigan) in 2003, Minnesota 5600 in its northeast in 2010,^[158] and under 100 in its northwest in 2009;^[159] North Dakota closed, due to low moose population, one of its moose-hunting geographic units in 2011, and issued 162 single-kill licenses to hunters, each restricted to one of the remaining nine units.^[160]

Europe and Asia:

• Finland: In 2009, there was a summer population of 115,000.[161]
• Norway: In 2009, there were a winter population of around 120,000.^[162] In 2015 31,131 moose were shot. In 1999, a record number of 39,422 moose were shot.^[163]
• Latvia: in 2015, there were 21,000.^[164]
• Estonia: 13,260^[165]
• Lithuania: around 14,000 in 2016^[166]
• Poland: 28,000^[167]
• Czech Republic: maximum of 50^[168]
• Russia: In 2007, there were approximately 600,000.^[169]
• Sweden: Summer population is estimated to be 300,000–400,000. Around 100,000 are shot each fall.^[170][171] About 10,000 are killed in traffic accidents yearly.^[172]

Subspecies

European elk	A. a. alces	Finland, Sweden, Norway, Latvia, Estonia and Russia. No longer present in central and western Europe except for Poland, Lithuania and Belarus, with a certain population in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and northern Ukraine, including Bohemia since the 1970s; recently sighted in eastern Germany (the range formerly included France, Switzerland and the Benelux nations). Population increasing and regaining territory. Males weigh about 320 to 475 kg (705 to 1,047 lb) and females weigh 275 to 375 kg (606 to 827 lb) in this mid-sized subspecies. Shoulder height ranges from 1.7 to 2.1 m (5 ft 7 in to 6 ft 11 in).[173]
Yakutia, Mid-Siberian or Lena elk[174]	A. a. pfizenmayeri	Eastern Yenisei River in the west and most of Siberia. Its range excludes the ranges of the Chukotka and Ussuri elk to the east and northern Mongolia . Similar in size to the western moose of Canada and the United States.
Ussuri, Amur or Manchurian elk[174][175]	A. a. cameloides	Ranges from the Amur-Ussuri region of far eastern Russia, as well as the northeastern part of China. Ussuri elk are different from other elk subspecies in that their antler size is much smaller, or they lack antlers entirely. Even adult bulls' antlers are small and cervine, with little palmation. The smallest subspecies in both Eurasia and the world, with both males and females standing only 1.65 to 1.85 m (5 ft 5 in to 6 ft 1 in) at the shoulder and weighing between 200 and 350 kg (441 and 772 lb).[176]
Chukotka or East Siberian elk[174]	A. a. buturlini	Ranges from northeastern Siberia from the Alazeya River basin east to the Kolyma and Anadyr basins and south through the Koryak range and the Kamchatka Peninsula . The largest subspecies in Eurasia. Males can grow up to 2.15 m (7 ft 1 in) tall and weigh between 500 and 725 kg (1,102 and 1,598 lb); females are somewhat smaller.
Eastern moose	A. a. americana	Eastern Canada, including eastern Atlantic Provinces and the northeastern United States, including Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut and northern New York near the Adirondack Mountains. Population increasing. This is a fairly small-bodied subspecies, females weighing an average of 270 kg (595 lb), males weighing an average of 365 kg (805 lb) and males standing up to approximately 2 m (6.6 ft) at the shoulder.
Western moose	A. a. andersoni	British Columbia to western Ontario, the eastern Yukon, the Northwest Territories, southwestern Nunavut, Michigan (the Upper Peninsula), northern Wisconsin, northern Minnesota and northeastern North Dakota. A middle-sized subspecies that weighs 340 to 420 kg (750 to 926 lb) in adult females and 450 to 500 kg (992 to 1,102 lb) in adult males on average.[177]
Alaskan moose	A. a. gigas	Alaska and the western Yukon. The largest subspecies in North America and the world and the largest living deer in the world; the largest one shot on record weighed 820 kg (1,808 lb), and was 2.33 m (7.6 ft) tall at the shoulder.[178]
Shiras' moose or Yellowstone moose	A. a. shirasi	Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming.[179] The smallest subspecies in North America, weighing about 230 to 344 kg (507 to 758 lb) at maturity.
† Caucasian elk[180]	A. a. caucasicus	The Caucasus Mountains. Extinct due to habitat loss and overhunting. Its range would have included European Russia, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Turkey.

Relationship with humans

History

European

rock drawings and cave paintings reveal that moose have been hunted since the Stone Age. Excavations in Alby, Sweden, adjacent to the Stora Alvaret have yielded moose antlers in wooden hut remains from 6000 BCE, indicating some of the earliest moose hunting in northern Europe. In northern Scandinavia one can still find remains of trapping pits used for hunting moose. These pits, which can be up to 4 m × 7 m (13 ft × 23 ft) in area and 2 m (6 ft 7 in) deep, would have been camouflaged with branches and leaves^{[citation needed]}. They would have had steep sides lined with planks, making it impossible for the moose to escape once it fell in. The pits are normally found in large groups, crossing the moose's regular paths and stretching over several km. Remains of wooden fences designed to guide the animals toward the pits have been found in bogs and peat. In Norway, an early example of these trapping devices has been dated to around 3700 BC^{[citation needed}

]. Trapping elk in pits is an extremely effective hunting method. As early as the 16th century the Norwegian government tried to restrict their use; nevertheless, the method was in use until the 19th century.

The earliest recorded description of the moose is in Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico, where it is described thus:

There are also [animals], which are called

alces (moose). The shape of these, and the varied color of their skins, is much like roes, but in size they surpass them a little and are destitute of horns, and have legs without joints and ligatures; nor do they lie down for the purpose of rest, nor, if they have been thrown down by any accident, can they raise or lift themselves up. Trees serve as beds to them; they lean themselves against them, and thus reclining only slightly, they take their rest; when the huntsmen have discovered from the footsteps of these animals whither they are accustomed to betake themselves, they either undermine all the trees at the roots, or cut into them so far that the upper part of the trees may appear to be left standing. When they have leant upon them, according to their habit, they knock down by their weight the unsupported trees, and fall down themselves along with them.^[181]

In book 8, chapter 16 of Pliny the Elder's Natural History from 77 CE, the elk and an animal called achlis, which is presumably the same animal, are described thus:

... there is, also, the moose, which strongly resembles our steers, except that it is distinguished by the length of the ears and of the neck. There is also the achlis, which is produced in the land of Scandinavia; it has never been seen in this city, although we have had descriptions of it from many persons; it is not unlike the moose, but has no joints in the hind leg. Hence, it never lies down, but reclines against a tree while it sleeps; it can only be taken by previously cutting into the tree, and thus laying a trap for it, as otherwise, it would escape through its swiftness. Its upper lip is so extremely large, for which reason it is obliged to go backwards when grazing; otherwise, by moving onwards, the lip would get doubled up.^[182]

As food

Moose are hunted as a

wapiti), it has a low fat content, and the fat that is present consists of a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fats than saturated fats.^[183]

Dr. Valerius Geist, who emigrated to Canada from the Soviet Union, wrote in his 1999 book Moose: Behaviour, Ecology, Conservation:

In Sweden, no fall menu is without a mouthwatering moose dish. The Swedes fence their highways to reduce moose fatalities and design moose-proof cars. Sweden is less than half as large as the Canadian province of British Columbia, but the annual take of moose in Sweden—upward of 150,000—is twice that of the total moose harvest in North America.

Boosting moose populations in Alaska for hunting purposes is one of the reasons given for allowing aerial or airborne methods to remove wolves in designated areas, e.g., Craig Medred: "A kill of 124 wolves would thus translate to [the survival of] 1488 moose or 2976

caribou or some combination thereof".^[184] Some scientists believe that this artificial inflation of game populations is actually detrimental to both caribou and moose populations as well as the ecosystem as a whole. This is because studies have shown^{[citation needed]} that when these game populations are artificially boosted, it leads to both habitat destruction and a crash in these populations.^[185]

Consumption of offal

Department of Natural Resources advises hunters not to consume cervid offal.^[188]

Cadmium intake has been found to be elevated amongst all consumers of moose meat, though the meat was found to contribute only slightly to the daily cadmium intake. However the consumption of moose liver or kidneys significantly increased cadmium intake, with the study revealing that heavy consumers of moose organs have a relatively narrow safety margin below the levels which would probably cause adverse

health effects.^[189]

Vehicle collisions

The center of mass of a moose is above the hood of most passenger cars. In a collision, the impact crushes the front roof beams and individuals in the front seats.^[190] Collisions of this type are frequently fatal; seat belts and airbags offer little protection.^[191] In collisions with higher vehicles (such as trucks), most of the deformation is to the front of the vehicle and the passenger compartment is largely spared. Moose collisions have prompted the development of a vehicle test referred to as the "moose test" (Swedish: Älgtest, German: Elchtest). A Massachusetts study found that moose–vehicular collisions had a very high human fatality rate and that such collisions caused the death of 3% of the Massachusetts moose population annually.^[192]

Moose warning signs are used on roads in regions where there is a danger of collision with the animal. The triangular warning signs common in Sweden, Norway, and Finland have become coveted souvenirs among tourists traveling in these countries, causing road authorities so much expense that the moose signs have been replaced with imageless generic warning signs in some regions.^[193]

In Ontario, Canada, an estimated 265 moose die each year as a result of collision with trains. Moose–train collisions were more frequent in winters with above-average snowfall.^[194] In January 2008, the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten estimated that some 13,000 moose had died in collisions with Norwegian trains since 2000. The state agency in charge of railroad infrastructure (Jernbaneverket) plans to spend 80 million Norwegian kroner to reduce collision rate in the future by fencing the railways, clearing vegetation from near the tracks, and providing alternative snow-free feeding places for the animals elsewhere.^[195]

In the Canadian province of New Brunswick, collisions between automobiles and moose are frequent enough that all new highways have fences to prevent moose from accessing the road, as has long been done in Finland, Norway, and Sweden. A demonstration project, Highway 7 between Fredericton and Saint John, which has one of the highest frequencies of moose collisions in the province, did not have these fences until 2008, although it was and continues to be extremely well signed.^[196][197] Newfoundland and Labrador recommended that motorists use caution between dusk and dawn because that is when moose are most active and most difficult to see, increasing the risk of collisions.^[198] Local moose sightings are often reported on radio stations so that motorists can take care while driving in particular areas. An electronic "moose detection system" was installed on two sections of the Trans-Canada Highway in Newfoundland in 2011, but the system proved unreliable and was removed in 2015.^[199]

In Sweden, a road will not be fenced unless it experiences at least one moose accident per km per year.^[200]

In eastern Germany, where the scarce population is slowly increasing, there were two road accidents involving moose since 2000.^[135]

• 
  Norwegian road sign.
• 
  Warning sign in Alaska where trees and brush are trimmed along high moose crossing areas so that moose can be seen as they approach the road.
• 
  Moose (A. a. gigas) crossing a road in Alaska.
• 
  Canadian road sign.

Domestication

Domestication of moose was investigated in the Soviet Union before World War II. Early experiments were inconclusive, but with the creation of a moose farm at Pechora-Ilych Nature Reserve in 1949, a small-scale moose domestication program was started, involving attempts at selective breeding of animals on the basis of their behavioural characteristics. Since 1963, the program has continued at Kostroma Moose Farm, which had a herd of 33 tame moose as of 2003. Although at this stage the farm is not expected to be a profit-making enterprise, it obtains some income from the sale of moose milk and from visiting tourist groups. Its main value, however, is seen in the opportunities it offers for the research in the physiology and behavior of the moose, as well as in the insights it provides into the general principles of animal domestication.

In Sweden, there was a debate in the late 18th century about the national value of using the moose as a domestic animal. Among other things, the moose was proposed to be used in postal distribution, and there was a suggestion to develop a moose-mounted cavalry. Such proposals remained unimplemented, mainly because the extensive hunting for moose that was deregulated in the 1790s nearly drove it to extinction. While there have been documented cases of individual moose being used for riding and/or pulling carts and sleds, Björklöf concludes no wide-scale usage has occurred outside fairy tales.^[201]

Heraldry

As one of the Canadian national symbols, the moose occurs on several Canadian coats of arms, including Newfoundland and Labrador,^[202] and Ontario.^[203] Moose is also a common coat of arms in Europe as well; for example, in Finland, it appears on the coats of arms of Hirvensalmi and Mäntsälä municipalities.^[204] The Seal of Michigan features a moose.^[205]

See also

• Älgen Stolta, a rare example of a domesticated moose

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Further reading

• Alces: A journal devoted to the biology and management of moose (Alces alces) Centre for Northern Forest Ecosystem Research.
• DuTemple, Lesley A. (February 1, 2000). North American Moose. Lerner Publications.
  ISBN 9781575054261
  .
• Geist, Valerius; Francis, Michael H. (November 1999). Moose: Behavior, Ecology, Conservation. Voyageur Press (MN).
  ISBN 978-0-89658-422-8
  .
• Promack, Jennie; Sanker, Thomas J. (June 1, 1992). Seasons of the Moose. Gibbs Smith.
  ISBN 9780879054557
  .
• Strong, Paul (May 1998). Wild Moose Country (illustrated ed.). Cowles Creative Publishing.
  ISBN 978-1-55971-638-3
  .

External links

Look up moose in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alces alces.

Wikispecies has information related to Alces alces.

• "Alces alces". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
• A moose in the National Nature Park "Losinyj Ostrov" ("Moose" or "Elk" Island) in Russia
• "North American Mammals: Alces alces". Archived from the original on 2016-01-22. Retrieved 2007-01-28. from the National Museum of Natural History