The Languages of Africa

The Languages of Africa
	Cover of the first edition
Author	Joseph Greenberg
Country	United States
Language	English
Subject	Languages of Africa
Published	1963
Media type	Print

The Languages of Africa is a 1963 book of essays by the linguist

African languages that, with some changes, continues to be the most commonly used one today. It is an expanded and extensively revised version of his 1955 work Studies in African Linguistic Classification, which was itself a compilation of eight articles which Greenberg had published in the Southwestern Journal of Anthropology between 1949 and 1954. It was first published in 1963 as Part II of the International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 29, No. 1; however, its second edition of 1966, in which it was published (by Indiana University, Bloomington: Mouton & Co., The Hague) as an independent work, is more commonly cited.^{[citation needed}

]

Its author describes it as based on three fundamentals of method:

"The sole relevance in comparison of resemblances involving both sound and meaning in specific forms."^[page needed]
"
Mass comparison as against isolated comparisons between pairs of languages."^{[page needed}
]

"Only linguistic evidence is relevant in drawing conclusions about classification."^[page needed]

Innovations

Greenberg's

Benue–Congo

(previously termed "Semi-Bantu").

Hamitic as having no coherent meaning in historical linguistics; as a result, he renamed the newly reclassified family "Afroasiatic

".

Following Schapera and rejecting Meinhof, he classified Hottentot as a member of the

Central Khoisan languages. To Khoisan he also added the much more northerly Hadza (Hatsa) and Sandawe

.

His most revolutionary step was the postulation of the

Chari–Nile, to which he added all the remaining unclassified languages of Africa that did not have noun classes. The distinction between Chari–Nile and the peripheral branches has since been abandoned. On a lower level, he placed "Nilo-Hamitic" firmly within Nilotic

, following a suggestion of Köhler, and placed Eastern Sudanic on a firmer foundation.

Finally, he assigned the unclassified

Tumtum" group, though the Kordofanian languages

are no longer seen as being a primary branch, and the name 'Congo–Kordofanian' is no longer used.

Greenberg's four families became the dominant conception of African languages, though his subclassification did not fare as well. Niger−Congo and Afroasiatic are nearly universally accepted, with no significant support for Hamitic or the independence of Bantu. Nilo-Saharan is still considered provisional. Khoisan is now rejected by specialists, except as a term of convenience, though it may be retained in less specialized literature.

Classification

The book classifies Africa's languages into four stocks not presumed to be related to each other, as follows:

I.
Congo–Kordofanian

I.A Niger–Congo

I.A.1 West Atlantic

I.A.1.a Northern:

Bidyogo

I.A.1.b Southern:

Bulom, Limba, Gola

I.A.2 Mande

I.A.2.a Western

I.A.2.a.1

Khasonke Bobo

I.A.2.a.5 Soninke, Bozo

I.A.2.a.6

Kpan, Banka

I.A.2.b Eastern

I.A.2.b.1

Wen), Yaure

I.A.2.b.2 Samo, Bisa, Busa, Kyenga, Shanga

I.A.3

Voltaic

I.A.3.a

Nafana

I.A.3.b. ~~Lobi-Dogon~~:

Bwamu, Wara, Natioro, ~~Dogon~~, Kulango

) (moved from group c)

Kabre, Delo, Chala

Chamba), Moba

Dogon^[1]

I.A.4.a

Krawi

)

I.A.4.b

Adangme

I.A.4.c Yoruba, Igala

I.A.4.d

Igbira, Gade

I.A.5.A Plateau

I.A.5.A.1

I.A.5.A.1.a

Kamuku, Reshe

I.A.6.A.1 Tula, Dadiya, Waja, Cham, Kamu

Mumbake

I.A.6.A.3 Daka, Taram

I.A.6.A.11

Fali

I.A.6.A.12 Nimbari

Nielim, Koke

Mundu, Mayogo, Bangba

I.A.6.B.6

Feroge, Indri, Mangaya, Togoyo

Madyo, Ma

I.B.1

Tira, Moro, Fungor

Katla: Katla, Tima

II. Nilo-Saharan

II.A

Songhai

II.B Saharan

II.B.a Kanuri, Kanembu

II.B.b

Daza

II.B.c Zaghawa, Berti

II.C

Mimi of Gaudefroy-Demombynes

II.D. Fur

II.E.

Chari–Nile

II.E.1 Eastern Sudanic

II.E.1.1 Nubian

II.E.1.1.a Nile Nubian (

Kenuzi-Dongola

)

II.E.1.1.b

Kundugr

II.E.1.1.c Midob

II.E.1.1.d

Birked

Masongo

II.E.1.3

Barea

Tabi

)

II.E.1.5 Nyima, Afitti

II.E.1.6

Teis-um-Danab

Merarit, Tama, Sungor

Liguri

II.E.1.9 Nilotic

II.E.1.9.a Western

II.E.1.9.a.1 Burun

II.E.1.9.a.2

Luo, Jur, Bor

II.E.1.9.a.3 Dinka, Nuer

II.E.1.9.b Eastern

II.E.1.9.b.1

Mondari

II.E.1.9.b.2a

Topotha, Turkana

Tatoga^[2]

II.E.2 Central Sudanic

II.E.2.1

Bubalia

II.E.2.2

Kreish

II.E.2.3

Binga, Yulu, Kara

II.E.3 Berta

II.E.4 Kunama

II.F

Coman: Komo, Ganza, Uduk, Gule, Gumuz, Mao

III. Afroasiatic

III.A Semitic

III.B Egyptian

III.C Berber

III.D Cushitic

III.D.1 Northern Cushitic:

Bedauye

)

III.D.2

Quara

III.D.3

Mogogodo

(added 1966)

III.D.4

Dollo

III.D.5

Ngomvia

(added 1966)

III.E Chad

III.E.1

III.E.1.a Hausa, Gwandara

III.E.1.b

Bede

III.E.1.c

III.E.1.c.i

Sirawa

III.E.1.c.ii

Barawa of Dass

III.E.1.d

III.E.1.d.i

Maha

(added 1966)

III.E.1.d.ii

Gerka

III.E.1.d.iii Ron

III.E.2

Kuseri

III.E.3 Bata–Margi group

III.E.3.a

Podokwo

III.E.3.b

Hinna (Hina

III.E.8

Kulung

III.E.9

III.E.9.a

Gulei

[= Tumak?]

III.E.9.b

Nangire

III.E.9.c

Bedanga), Barein

IV Khoisan

IV.A South African Khoisan

IV.A.1

Northern South African Khoisan

IV.A.2

Central South African Khoisan

IV.A.3

Southern South African Khoisan

IV.B Sandawe

IV.C

Hatsa

Bibliography

Greenberg, Joseph H. (1963) The Languages of Africa. International journal of American linguistics, 29, 1, part 2.
Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966) The Languages of Africa (2nd ed. with additions and corrections). Bloomington: Indiana University.

References

^ 1966: "should probably be considered a new separate subgroup. If anything, it is nearest to group c"
^ The text says this is not a subgroup of Eastern, suggesting that this should rather be II.E.1.9.c.

[1] 1966: "should probably be considered a new separate subgroup. If anything, it is nearest to group c"

[2] The text says this is not a subgroup of Eastern, suggesting that this should rather be II.E.1.9.c.

[1]

[2]

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Innovations

Classification

I. Congo–Kordofanian

II. Nilo-Saharan

III. Afroasiatic

IV Khoisan

Bibliography

References

I.
Congo–Kordofanian