Glossary of engineering: A–L

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
See also: Glossary of engineering: M–Z

This glossary of engineering terms is a list of definitions about the major concepts of engineering. Please see the bottom of the page for glossaries of specific fields of engineering.

Engineering

A

IUPAC definition,[1] is the electrode potential of a metal
measured with respect to a universal reference system (without any additional metal–solution interface).
Absolute pressure
Is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale
, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
Absolute zero
The lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0. Absolute zero is the point at which the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units),[2][3] which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units).[4] The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.
spectral radiant power through a material.[5]
AC power
Electric power delivered by alternating current; common household power is AC.
Acceleration
The rate at which the velocity of a body changes with time, and the direction in which that change is acting.
Acid
A molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H+), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid).[6]
Acid–base reaction
A chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base, which can be used to determine pH.
Acid strength
In strong acids, most of the molecules give up a hydrogen ion and become ionized.
Acoustics
The scientific study of sound.
Activated sludge
A type of wastewater treatment process for treating sewage or industrial wastewaters using aeration and a biological floc composed of bacteria and protozoa.
Activated sludge model
A generic name for a group of mathematical methods to model activated sludge systems.
human physiology is the uptake of glucose in the intestines
.
Actuator
A device that accepts 2 inputs (control signal, energy source) and outputs kinetic energy in the form of physical movement (linear, rotary, or oscillatory). The control signal input specifies which motion should be taken. The energy source input is typically either an electric current, hydraulic pressure, or pneumatic pressure. An actuator can be the final element of a control loop
energy transfer.[7]
Adhesion
The tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another (cohesion refers to the tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another).
Adiabatic process
A process where no heat energy is lost to outside space.
Adiabatic wall
A barrier through which heat energy cannot pass.
Aerobic digestion
A process in sewage treatment designed to reduce the volume of sewage sludge and make it suitable[8] for subsequent use.[9]
Aerodynamics
The study of the motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these fields.
Aerospace engineering
Is the primary field of engineering concerned with the development of aircraft and spacecraft.[10] It has two major and overlapping branches: Aeronautical engineering and Astronautical Engineering. Avionics engineering is similar, but deals with the electronics side of aerospace engineering.
effective focal length.[11]
Agricultural engineering
The profession of designing machinery, processes, and systems for use in agriculture.
Albedo
A measure of the fraction of light reflected from an astronomical body or other object.
Alkane
An alkane, or paraffin (a historical name that also has other meanings), is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single.[12]
unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains at least one carbon–carbon double bond.[13]
The words alkene and olefin are often used interchangeably.
Alkyne
Is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond.[14] The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula CnH2n−2.
Alloy
is a combination of metals or of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character.[15]
Alpha particle
Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus. They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also be produced in other ways. Alpha particles are named after the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α.
Alternating current
Electrical current that regularly reverses direction.
statistical hypothesis testing
, the alternative hypothesis (or maintained hypothesis or research hypothesis) and the
statistical hypothesis test. In the domain of science two rival hypotheses can be compared by explanatory power and predictive power
.
Ammeter
An instrument that measures current.
Amino acids
Are organic compounds containing amine (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid.[16][17][18] The key elements of an amino acid are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N), although other elements are found in the side chains of certain amino acids. About 500 naturally occurring amino acids are known (though only 20 appear in the genetic code) and can be classified in many ways.[19]
Amorphous solid
An amorphous (from the Greek a, without, morphé, shape, form) or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal.
Ampere
The SI unit of current flow, one coulomb per second.
oxidation states
of the oxide. Al2O3 is an example of an amphoteric oxide.
Amplifier
A device that replicates a signal with increased power.
extreme values. In older texts the phase is sometimes called the amplitude.[21]
fermentation
used industrially to produce food and drink products, as well as home fermentation, uses anaerobic digestion.
α).[23]
linear momentum. It is an important quantity in physics because it is a conserved quantity—the total angular momentum of a system remains constant unless acted on by an external torque
.
SI units, and is usually represented by the symbol omega
(ω, sometimes Ω). By convention, positive angular velocity indicates counter-clockwise rotation, while negative is clockwise.
Anion
Is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge (since electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged).[24]
Annealing (metallurgy)
A heat treatment process that relieves internal stresses.
conservation of momentum are obeyed.[26]
Anode
The electrode at which current enters a device such as an electrochemical cell or vacuum tube.
non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States.[27]
The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide.
Anti-gravity
Anti-gravity (also known as non-gravitational field) is a theory of creating a place or object that is free from the force of gravity. It does not refer to the lack of weight under gravity experienced in free fall or orbit, or to balancing the force of gravity with some other force, such as electromagnetism or aerodynamic lift.
Applied engineering
Is the field concerned with the application of management, design, and technical skills for the design and integration of systems, the execution of new product designs, the improvement of manufacturing processes, and the management and direction of physical and/or technical functions of a firm or organization. Applied-engineering degreed programs typically include instruction in basic engineering principles, project management, industrial processes, production and operations management, systems integration and control, quality control, and statistics.[28]
Applied mathematics
Mathematics used for solutions of practical problems, as opposed to pure mathematics.
infinitesimal calculus led to a general formula that provides closed-form solutions
in some cases.
law of physics fundamental to fluid mechanics. It was formulated by Archimedes of Syracuse[30]
Area moment of inertia
The 2nd moment of area, also known as moment of inertia of plane area, area moment of inertia, or second area moment, is a geometrical property of an area which reflects how its points are distributed with regard to an arbitrary axis. The second moment of area is typically denoted with either an for an axis that lies in the plane or with a for an axis perpendicular to the plane. In both cases, it is calculated with a
unit of dimension when working with the International System of Units is meters to the fourth power, m
4.
Arithmetic mean
In mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean or simply the mean or average when the context is clear, is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the number of numbers in the collection.[31]
Arithmetic progression
In mathematics, an arithmetic progression (AP) or arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference between the consecutive terms is constant. Difference here means the second minus the first. For instance, the sequence 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, . . . is an arithmetic progression with common difference of 2.
pi electrons between carbon atoms forming a circle. In contrast, aliphatic hydrocarbons lack this delocalization. The term "aromatic" was assigned before the physical mechanism determining aromaticity was discovered; the term was coined as such simply because many of the compounds have a sweet or pleasant odour. The configuration of six carbon atoms in aromatic compounds is known as a benzene ring, after the simplest possible such hydrocarbon, benzene
. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic (MAH) or polycyclic (PAH).
empirical relationship.[37]: 188  It can be used to model the temperature variation of diffusion coefficients, population of crystal vacancies, creep rates, and many other thermally-induced processes/reactions. The Eyring equation
, developed in 1935, also expresses the relationship between rate and energy.
human mind, such as "learning" and "problem solving".[41]
Assembly language
A computer programming language where most statements correspond to one or a few machine op-codes.
atomic theory and quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom.[42] This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around the atom's nucleus. The term atomic orbital may also refer to the physical region or space where the electron can be calculated to be present, as defined by the particular mathematical form of the orbital.[43]
Atomic packing factor
The percentage of the volume filled with atomic mass in a crystal formation.
Audio frequency
An audio frequency (abbreviation: AF), or audible frequency is characterized as a periodic vibration whose frequency is audible to the average human. The SI unit of audio frequency is the hertz (Hz). It is the property of sound that most determines pitch.[44]
Austenitization
Austenitization means to heat the iron, iron-based metal, or steel to a temperature at which it changes crystal structure from ferrite to austenite.[45] The more open structure of the austenite is then able to absorb carbon from the iron-carbides in carbon steel. An incomplete initial austenitization can leave undissolved carbides in the matrix.[46] For some irons, iron-based metals, and steels, the presence of carbides may occur during the austenitization step. The term commonly used for this is two-phase austenitization.[47]
Automation
Is the technology by which a process or procedure is performed with minimum human assistance.[48] Automation[49] or automatic control is the use of various control systems for operating equipment such as machinery, processes in factories, boilers, and heat-treating ovens, switching on telephone networks, steering and stabilization of ships, aircraft and other applications and vehicles with minimal or reduced human intervention. Some processes have been completely automated.
Autonomous vehicle
A vehicle capable of driving from one point to another without input from a human operator.
Azimuthal quantum number
The azimuthal quantum number is a quantum number for an atomic orbital that determines its orbital angular momentum and describes the shape of the orbital. The azimuthal quantum number is the second of a set of quantum numbers which describe the unique quantum state of an electron (the others being the principal quantum number, following spectroscopic notation, the magnetic quantum number, and the spin quantum number). It is also known as the orbital angular momentum quantum number, orbital quantum number or second quantum number, and is symbolized as ℓ.

B

Barometer
A device for measuring pressure.
Battery
Electrochemical cells that transform chemical energy into electricity.
ions
.
Baud
Rate at which data is transferred in symbols/second; a symbol may represent one or more bits.
Beam
A structural element whose length is significantly greater than its width or height.
BGK equation
.
Belt
A closed loop of flexible material used to transmit mechanical power from one pulley to another.
Belt friction
Is a term describing the friction forces between a belt and a surface, such as a belt wrapped around a bollard. When one end of the belt is being pulled only part of this force is transmitted to the other end wrapped about a surface. The friction force increases with the amount of wrap about a surface and makes it so the tension in the belt can be different at both ends of the belt. Belt friction can be modeled by the Belt friction equation.[51]
moment is applied to the element, causing the element to bend.[53]
[54] The most common or simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam.
costs
of a single decision, project, or policy.
Bernoulli differential equation
In mathematics, an ordinary differential equation of the form:
is called a Bernoulli differential equation where is any real number and and .
logistic differential equation
.
Bernoulli's equation
An equation for relating several measurements within a fluid flow, such as velocity, pressure, and potential energy.
heat radiation
) are small and can be neglected.
Beta particle
also called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two forms of beta decay, β− decay and β+ decay, which produce electrons and positrons respectively.[62]
zero (with probability
q=1 − p). A single success/failure experiment is also called a Bernoulli trial or Bernoulli experiment and a sequence of outcomes is called a Bernoulli process; for a single trial, i.e., n=1, the binomial distribution is a Bernoulli distribution. The binomial distribution is the basis for the popular binomial test of statistical significance.
organic compounds. Both enzymes that have been more or less isolated and enzymes still residing inside living cells are employed for this task.[63][64][65] The modern usage of biotechnologically produced and possibly modified enzymes for organic synthesis
is termed chemoenzymatic synthesis; the reactions performed are chemoenzymatic reactions.
monitoring, and therapy.[66]
Biomimetic
Biomimetics or biomimicry is the imitation of the models, systems, and elements of nature for the purpose of solving complex human problems.[67]
Bionics
The application of biological methods to engineering systems.
bioengineering, computational biology, biomechanics and systems biology
.
Biot number
The Biot number (Bi) is a dimensionless quantity used in heat transfer calculations. It is named after the eighteenth century French physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774–1862), and gives a simple index of the ratio of the heat transfer resistances inside of and at the surface of a body. This ratio determines whether or not the temperatures inside a body will vary significantly in space, while the body heats or cools over time, from a thermal gradient applied to its surface.
Block and tackle
A system of pulleys and a rope threaded between them, used to lift or pull heavy loads.
magnetic fields are examples of body forces. Body forces contrast with contact forces or surface forces
which are exerted to the surface of an object.
Boiler
Is a closed vessel in which fluid (generally water) is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil. The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications,[71][72] including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation.
Boiling point
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid[73][74] and the liquid changes into a vapor.
Boiling-point elevation
Boiling-point elevation describes the phenomenon that the boiling point of a liquid (a solvent) will be higher when another compound is added, meaning that a solution has a higher boiling point than a pure solvent. This happens whenever a non-volatile solute, such as a salt, is added to a pure solvent, such as water. The boiling point can be measured accurately using an ebullioscope.
Boltzmann constant
The Boltzmann constant (kB or k) is a physical constant relating the average kinetic energy of particles in a gas with the temperature of the gas[75] and occurs in Planck's law of black-body radiation and in Boltzmann's entropy formula. It was introduced by Max Planck, but named after Ludwig Boltzmann. It is the gas constant R divided by the Avogadro constant NA:
.
Boson
In quantum mechanics, a boson (/ˈboʊsɒn/,[76] /ˈboʊzɒn/[77]) is a particle that follows Bose–Einstein statistics. Bosons make up one of the two classes of particles, the other being fermions.[78] The name boson was coined by Paul Dirac[79][80] to commemorate the contribution of Indian physicist and professor of physics at University of Calcutta and at University of Dhaka, Satyendra Nath Bose[81][82] in developing, with Albert Einstein, Bose–Einstein statistics—which theorizes the characteristics of elementary particles.[83]
Boyle's law
Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the Boyle–Mariotte law, or Mariotte's law[84]) is an experimental gas law that describes how the pressure of a gas tends to increase as the volume of the container decreases. A modern statement of Boyle's law is: The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies if the temperature and amount of gas remain unchanged within a closed system.[85][86]
Bravais lattice
In geometry and crystallography, a Bravais lattice, named after Auguste Bravais (1850),[87] is an infinite array (or a finite array, if we consider the edges, obviously) of discrete points generated by a set of discrete translation operations described in three dimensional space by:
where ni are any integers and ai are known as the primitive vectors which lie in different directions (not necessarily mutually perpendicular) and span the lattice. This discrete set of vectors must be closed under vector addition and subtraction. For any choice of position vector R, the lattice looks exactly the same.
Brayton cycle
A thermodynamic cycle model for an ideal heat engine, in which heat is added or removed at constant pressure; approximated by a gas turbine.
Break-even
The break-even point (BEP) in economics, business—and specifically cost accounting—is the point at which total cost and total revenue are equal, i.e. "even". There is no net loss or gain, and one has "broken even", though opportunity costs have been paid and capital has received the risk-adjusted, expected return. In short, all costs that must be paid are paid, and there is neither profit nor loss.[88][89]
Brewster's angle
Brewster's angle (also known as the polarization angle) is an angle of incidence at which light with a particular polarization is perfectly transmitted through a transparent dielectric surface, with no reflection. When unpolarized light is incident at this angle, the light that is reflected from the surface is therefore perfectly polarized. This special angle of incidence is named after the Scottish physicist Sir David Brewster (1781–1868).[90][91]
PMMA and polystyrene. Many steels become brittle at low temperatures (see ductile–brittle transition temperature
), depending on their composition and processing.
Bromide
Any chemical substance made up of Bromine, along with other elements.
Arrhenius theory
.
Brownian motion
Brownian motion or pedesis is the random motion of particles suspended in a fluid (a liquid or a gas) resulting from their collision with the fast-moving molecules in the fluid.[94]
Buckingham π theorem
A method for determining Π groups, or dimensionless descriptors of physical phenomena.
strong acid or base
is added to it. Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a nearly constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. In nature, there are many systems that use buffering for pH regulation.
Bulk modulus
The bulk modulus ( or ) of a substance is a measure of how resistant to compression that substance is. It is defined as the ratio of the infinitesimal pressure increase to the resulting relative decrease of the volume.[95] Other moduli describe the material's response (
anisotropic solid such as wood or paper, these three moduli do not contain enough information to describe its behaviour, and one must use the full generalized Hooke's law
.
Buoyancy
A force caused by displacement in a fluid by an object of different density than the fluid.

C

Calculus
The mathematics of change.
Capacitance
The ability of a body to store electrical charge.
Capacitive reactance
The impedance of a capacitor in an alternating current circuit, the opposition to current flow.
Capacitor
An electrical component that stores energy in an electric field.
carbon fiber, or in a cell. It occurs because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding solid surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces
between the liquid and container wall act to propel the liquid.
Carbonate
Any mineral with bound carbon dioxide.
Carnot cycle
A hypothetical thermodynamic cycle for a heat engine; no thermodynamic cycle can be more efficient than a Carnot cycle operating between the same two temperature limits.
Cartesian coordinates
Coordinates within a rectangular Cartesian plane.
Castigliano's method
Named for Carlo Alberto Castigliano, is a method for determining the displacements of a linear-elastic system based on the partial derivatives of the energy. He is known for his two theorems. The basic concept may be easy to understand by recalling that a change in energy is equal to the causing force times the resulting displacement. Therefore, the causing force is equal to the change in energy divided by the resulting displacement. Alternatively, the resulting displacement is equal to the change in energy divided by the causing force. Partial derivatives are needed to relate causing forces and resulting displacements to the change in energy.
Casting
Forming of an object by pouring molten metal (or other substances) into a mold.
Cathode
The terminal of a device by which current exits.
Cathode ray
The stream of electrons emitted from a heated negative electrode and attracted to a positive electrode.
Cell membrane
The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment (the extracellular space) which protects the cell from its environment[96][97] consisting of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
Cell nucleus
In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel or seed) is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood cells, have no nuclei, and a few others including osteoclasts have many.
Cell theory
In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction.
Center of gravity
The center of mass of an object, its balance point.
Center of mass
The weighted center of an object; a force applied through the center of mass will not cause rotation of the object.
Center of pressure
Is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing a force to act through that point. The total force vector acting at the center of pressure is the value of the integrated vectorial pressure field. The resultant force and center of pressure location produce equivalent force and moment on the body as the original pressure field.
Central force motion
.
independent random variables are added, their properly normalized sum tends toward a normal distribution
(informally a "bell curve") even if the original variables themselves are not normally distributed. The theorem is a key concept in probability theory because it implies that probabilistic and statistical methods that work for normal distributions can be applicable to many problems involving other types of distributions.
I/O circuitry.[99]
Centripetal acceleration
.
Centripetal force
A force acting against rotational acceleration.
Centroid
The average point of volume for an object.
metazoan lineage of eukaryotic cells.[100] Fungi and plants lack centrosomes and therefore use structures other than MTOCs to organize their microtubules.[101]
[102]
Chain reaction
Is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place. In a chain reaction, positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events.
Change of base rule
.
Charles's law
Charles's law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas law that describes how gases tend to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles's law is: When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be in direct proportion.[103]
dipole–dipole interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding
.
Chemical compound
Is a chemical substance composed of many identical molecules (or molecular entities) composed of atoms from more than one element held together by chemical bonds. A chemical element bonded to an identical chemical element is not a chemical compound since only one element, not two different elements, is involved.
Chemical equilibrium
In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time, so that there is no observable change in the properties of the system.[104] Usually, this state results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same rate as the reverse reaction. The reaction rates of the forward and backward reactions are generally not zero, but equal. Thus, there are no net changes in the concentrations of the reactant(s) and product(s). Such a state is known as dynamic equilibrium.[105][106]
Chemical kinetics
Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical kinetics includes investigations of how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction.
Chemical reaction
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.[107] Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation. Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes can occur.
scientific discipline involved with elements and compounds composed of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during a reaction with other substances.[108][109][110][111]
Chloride
Any chemical compound containing the element chlorine.
aqueous solution
, chromate and dichromate ions can be interconvertible.
Circular motion
In physics, circular motion is a movement of an object along the circumference of a circle or rotation along a circular path. It can be uniform, with constant angular rate of rotation and constant speed, or non-uniform with a changing rate of rotation. The rotation around a fixed axis of a three-dimensional body involves circular motion of its parts. The equations of motion describe the movement of the center of mass of a body.
Civil engineering
The profession that deals with the design and construction of structures, or other fixed works.
tangents
to this curve. Mathematically,
where is the slope of the tangent to the coexistence curve at any point, is the specific latent heat, is the temperature, is the specific volume change of the phase transition, and is the
specific entropy
change of the phase transition.
Clausius inequality
.
Clausius theorem
The Clausius theorem (1855) states that a system exchanging heat with external reservoirs and undergoing a cyclic process, is one that ultimately returns a system to its original state,
where is the infinitesimal amount of heat absorbed by the system from the reservoir and is the temperature of the external reservoir (surroundings) at a particular instant in time. In the special case of a reversible process, the equality holds.[114] The reversible case is used to introduce the entropy state function. This is because in a cyclic process the variation of a state function is zero. In words, the Clausius statement states that it is impossible to construct a device whose sole effect is the transfer of heat from a cool reservoir to a hot reservoir.[115] Equivalently, heat spontaneously flows from a hot body to a cooler one, not the other way around.[116] The generalized "inequality of Clausius"[117]
for an infinitesimal change in entropy S applies not only to cyclic processes, but to any process that occurs in a closed system.
Coefficient of performance
The coefficient of performance or COP (sometimes CP or CoP) of a heat pump, refrigerator or air conditioning system is a ratio of useful heating or cooling provided to work required.[118][119] Higher COPs equate to lower operating costs. The COP usually exceeds 1, especially in heat pumps, because, instead of just converting work to heat (which, if 100% efficient, would be a COP_hp of 1), it pumps additional heat from a heat source to where the heat is required. For complete systems, COP calculations should include energy consumption of all power consuming auxiliaries. COP is highly dependent on operating conditions, especially absolute temperature and relative temperature between sink and system, and is often graphed or averaged against expected conditions.[120]
frequency distribution. It is often expressed as a percentage, and is defined as the ratio of the standard deviation
to the mean (or its absolute value, ).
physical quantities
of a single wave, or between several waves or wave packets.
electrical attraction that can maintain a microscopic structure such as a water drop. In other words, cohesion allows for surface tension
, creating a "solid-like" state upon which light-weight or low-density materials can be placed.
Cold forming
Or cold working, any metal-working procedure (such as hammering, rolling, shearing, bending, milling, etc.) carried out below the metal's recrystallization temperature.
oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke
.
Compensation
Is planning for side effects or other unintended issues in a design. In a more simpler term, it's a "counter-procedure" plan on expected side effect performed to produce more efficient and useful results. The design of an invention can itself also be to compensate for some other existing issue or exception.
Compiler
A computer program that translates a high-level language into machine language.
Compressive strength
Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength, which withstands loads tending to elongate. In other words, compressive strength resists compression (being pushed together), whereas tensile strength resists tension (being pulled apart). In the study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear strength can be analyzed independently.
Computational fluid dynamics
The numerical solution of flow equations in practical problems such as aircraft design or hydraulic structures.
Computer
A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming. Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks.
computer systems (or workstations) to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.[122] CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing.[123] CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations. The term CADD (for Computer Aided Design and Drafting) is also used.[124]
optimization
.
Computer-aided manufacturing
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of software to control machine tools and related ones in the manufacturing of workpieces.[125][126][127][128][129] This is not the only definition for CAM, but it is the most common;[125] CAM may also refer to the use of a computer to assist in all operations of a manufacturing plant, including planning, management, transportation and storage.[130][131]
software.[132]
Computer science
Is the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It involves the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.[133]
Concave lens
Lenses are classified by the curvature of the two optical surfaces. A lens is biconvex (or double convex, or just convex) if both surfaces are convex. If both surfaces have the same radius of curvature, the lens is equiconvex. A lens with two concave
surfaces is biconcave (or just concave). If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is plano-convex or plano-concave depending on the curvature of the other surface. A lens with one convex and one concave side is convex-concave or meniscus.
Condensed matter physics
Is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic and microscopic physical properties of matter. In particular it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of constituents in a system is extremely large and the interactions between the constituents are strong.
population parameter. The interval has an associated confidence level that, loosely speaking, quantifies the level of confidence that the parameter lies in the interval. More strictly speaking, the confidence level represents the frequency (i.e. the proportion) of possible confidence intervals that contain the true value of the unknown population parameter. In other words, if confidence intervals are constructed using a given confidence level from an infinite number of independent sample statistics, the proportion of those intervals that contain the true value of the parameter will be equal to the confidence level.[134][135][136]
some acids
are capable of releasing multiple protons, the conjugate base of an acid may itself be acidic.
some acids
are capable of releasing multiple protons, the conjugate base of an acid may itself be acidic.
Conservation of energy
In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it is said to be conserved over time.[138] This law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another.
Conservation of mass
The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system's mass cannot change, so quantity cannot be added nor removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is conserved over time.
Continuity equation
A continuity equation in physics is an equation that describes the transport of some quantity. It is particularly simple and powerful when applied to a conserved quantity, but it can be generalized to apply to any extensive quantity. Since mass, energy, momentum, electric charge and other natural quantities are conserved under their respective appropriate conditions, a variety of physical phenomena may be described using continuity equations.
Continuum mechanics
Is a branch of mechanics that deals with the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles. The French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy was the first to formulate such models in the 19th century.
automatic control theory to design systems with desired behaviors in control environments.[139] The discipline of controls overlaps and is usually taught along with electrical engineering at many institutions around the world.[139]
.
Convex lens
Lenses are classified by the curvature of the two optical surfaces. A lens is biconvex (or double convex, or just convex) if both surfaces are convex. If both surfaces have the same radius of curvature, the lens is equiconvex. A lens with two concave
surfaces is biconcave (or just concave). If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is plano-convex or plano-concave depending on the curvature of the other surface. A lens with one convex and one concave side is convex-concave or meniscus.
Corrosion
Is a natural process, which converts a refined metal to a more chemically-stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their environment. Corrosion engineering is the field dedicated to controlling and stopping corrosion.
Cosmic rays
Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation, mainly originating outside the Solar System.[140]
Coulomb
The coulomb (symbol: C) is the International System of Units (SI) unit of electric charge. It is the charge (symbol: Q or q) transported by a constant current of one ampere in one second:
Thus, it is also the amount of excess charge on a capacitor of one farad charged to a potential difference of one volt:
The coulomb is equivalent to the charge of approximately 6.242×1018 (1.036×10−5 mol) protons, and −1 C is equivalent to the charge of approximately 6.242×1018 electrons. A
new definition, in terms of the elementary charge, will take effect on 20 May 2019.[141]
The new definition defines the elementary charge (the charge of the proton) as exactly 1.602176634×10−19 coulombs. This would implicitly define the coulomb as 1⁄0.1602176634×1018 elementary charges.
law of physics for quantifying Coulomb's force, or electrostatic force. Electrostatic force is the amount of force with which stationary, electrically charged particles either repel, or attract each other. This force and the law for quantifying it, represent one of the most basic forms of force used in the physical sciences, and were an essential basis to the study and development of the theory and field of classical electromagnetism. The law was first published in 1785 by French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb.[142]
In its scalar form, the law is:
,
where ke is the
Coulomb constant
(ke ≈ 9×109 N⋅m2⋅C−2), q1 and q2 are the signed magnitudes of the charges, and the scalar r is the distance between the charges. The force of the interaction between the charges is attractive if the charges have opposite signs (i.e., F is negative) and repulsive if like-signed (i.e., F is positive). Being an inverse-square law, the law is analogous to Isaac Newton's inverse-square law of universal gravitation. Coulomb's law can be used to derive Gauss's law, and vice versa.
Covalent bond
A covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
Crookes tube
A type of vacuum tube that demonstrates cathode rays.
Cryogenics
The science of low temperatures.
deposition directly from a gas
. Attributes of the resulting crystal depend largely on factors such as temperature, air pressure, and in the case of liquid crystals, time of fluid evaporation.
Crystallography
The study of crystals.
Curvilinear motion
Describes the motion of a moving particle that conforms to a known or fixed curve. The study of such motion involves the use of two co-ordinate systems, the first being planar motion and the latter being cylindrical motion.
Nobel prize in physics for this invention.[148][149]

D

Dalton's law
In chemistry and physics, Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.[150]
Damped vibration
Any vibration with a force acting against it to lessen the vibration over time.
Darcy–Weisbach equation
An equation used in fluid mechanics to find the pressure change cause by friction within a pipe or conduit.
DC motor
An electrical motor driven by direct current.
Decibel
A logarithmic unit of ratios.
Definite integral
The integral of a function between an upper and lower limit.[151]
Deflection
Is the degree to which a structural element is displaced under a load. It may refer to an angle or a distance.
Deformation (engineering)
In materials science, deformation refers to any changes in the shape or size of an object due to
  • an applied
    force
    (the deformation energy in this case is transferred through work) or
  • a change in temperature (the deformation energy in this case is transferred through heat).
The first case can be a result of
tensile (pulling) forces, compressive (pushing) forces, shear, bending, or torsion
(twisting). In the second case, the most significant factor, which is determined by the temperature, is the mobility of the structural defects such as grain boundaries, point vacancies, line and screw dislocations, stacking faults and twins in both crystalline and non-crystalline solids. The movement or displacement of such mobile defects is thermally activated, and thus limited by the rate of atomic diffusion.[152][153]
Deformation (mechanics)
Deformation in continuum mechanics is the transformation of a body from a reference configuration to a current configuration.[154] A configuration is a set containing the positions of all particles of the body. A deformation may be caused by
electromagnetic forces
), or changes in temperature, moisture content, or chemical reactions, etc.
Degrees of freedom
The number of parameters required to define the motion of a dynamical system.
Delta robot
A tripod linkage, used to construct fast-acting manipulators with a wide range of movement.
Delta-wye transformer
A type of transformer used in three-phase power systems.
De Moivre–Laplace theorem
In probability theory, the de Moivre–Laplace theorem, which is a special case of the central limit theorem, states that the normal distribution may be used as an approximation to the binomial distribution under certain conditions. In particular, the theorem shows that the probability mass function of the random number of "successes" observed in a series of
independent Bernoulli trials
, each having probability of success (a binomial distribution with trials),
converges to the probability density function
of the normal distribution with mean and standard deviation, as grows large, assuming is not or .
rho), although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:[156]
where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases (for instance, in the United States oil and gas industry), density is loosely defined as its weight per unit volume,[157] although this is scientifically inaccurate – this quantity is more specifically called specific weight.
Derivative
The derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to change of the function value (output value) with respect to a change in its argument (input value). Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus. For example, the derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's velocity: this measures how quickly the position of the object changes when time advances.
Design engineering
.
Dew point
The pressure and temperature at which air is holding the maximum possible humidity.
quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all materials; when it is the only contribution to the magnetism, the material is called diamagnetic. In paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances the weak diamagnetic force is overcome by the attractive force of magnetic dipoles in the material. The magnetic permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than μ0, the permeability of vacuum. In most materials diamagnetism is a weak effect which can only be detected by sensitive laboratory instruments, but a superconductor
acts as a strong diamagnet because it repels a magnetic field entirely from its interior.
Dielectric
An insulator, a material that does not permit free flow of electricity.
Differential pressure
.
Differential pulley
A differential pulley, also called Weston differential pulley, or colloquially chain fall, is used to manually lift very heavy objects like car engines. It is operated by pulling upon the slack section of a continuous chain that wraps around pulleys. The relative size of two connected pulleys determines the maximum weight that can be lifted by hand. The load will remain in place (and not lower under the force of gravity) until the chain is pulled.[158]
signals
.
Diffusion
Is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of higher concentration (or high chemical potential) to a region of lower concentration (or low chemical potential).
units of measure (such as miles vs. kilometers, or pounds vs. kilograms) and tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed. The conversion of units from one dimensional unit to another is often somewhat complex. Dimensional analysis, or more specifically the factor-label method, also known as the unit-factor method, is a widely used technique for such conversions using the rules of algebra.[159][160][161]
Direct integration of a beam
Direct integration is a structural analysis method for measuring internal shear, internal moment, rotation, and deflection of a beam. For a beam with an applied weight , taking downward to be positive, the internal shear force is given by taking the negative integral of the weight:
The internal moment M(x) is the integral of the internal shear:
=
The
angle of rotation
from the horizontal, , is the integral of the internal moment divided by the product of the Young's modulus and the area moment of inertia:
Integrating the angle of rotation obtains the vertical displacement :
.
Dispersion
In optics, dispersion is the phenomenon in which the phase velocity of a wave depends on its frequency.[162] Media having this common property may be termed dispersive media. Sometimes the term chromatic dispersion is used for specificity. Although the term is used in the field of optics to describe
electromagnetic waves, dispersion in the same sense can apply to any sort of wave motion such as acoustic dispersion in the case of sound and seismic waves, in gravity waves (ocean waves), and for telecommunication signals along transmission lines (such as coaxial cable) or optical fiber
.
Displacement (fluid)
In fluid mechanics, displacement occurs when an object is immersed in a fluid, pushing it out of the way and taking its place. The volume of the fluid displaced can then be measured, and from this, the volume of the immersed object can be deduced (the volume of the immersed object will be exactly equal to the volume of the displaced fluid).
position of a point P.[163] It quantifies both the distance and direction of an imaginary motion along a straight line from the initial position to the final position of the point. A displacement may be identified with the translation
that maps the initial position to the final position.
Distance
is a numerical measurement of how far apart objects are.
observer who is moving relative to the wave source.[164] It is named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler
, who described the phenomenon in 1842.
chemical) after a certain exposure time.[165]
Dose–response relationships can be described by dose–response curves. A stimulus response function or stimulus response curve is defined more broadly as the response from any type of stimulus, not limited to chemicals.
Drag
In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid.[166] This can exist between two fluid layers (or surfaces) or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend on velocity.[167][168] Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a
path
.
Drift current
In condensed matter physics and electrochemistry, drift current is the electric current, or movement of charge carriers, which is due to the applied electric field, often stated as the electromotive force over a given distance. When an electric field is applied across a semiconductor material, a current is produced due to the flow of charge carriers.
Ductility
Is a measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic deformation before rupture, which may be expressed as percent elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile test.
second law of motion
.
centimetre–gram–second (CGS) system of units, a predecessor of the modern SI
.

E

Economics
The scientific study of the production, distribution and consumption of goods.
Effusion
In physics and chemistry, effusion is the process in which a gas escapes from a container through a hole of diameter considerably smaller than the mean free path of the molecules.[170]
Elastic modulus
The amount a material will deform per unit force.
Elasticity
In physics, elasticity is the ability of a body to resist a distorting influence and to return to its original size and shape when that influence or force is removed. Solid objects will deform when adequate forces are applied to them. If the material is elastic, the object will return to its initial shape and size when these forces are removed.
classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that do not require consideration of quantum effects
.
Electric circuit
Is an electrical network consisting of a closed loop, giving a return path for the current.
electric circuits this charge is often carried by moving electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons such as in an ionised gas (plasma).[172]
The SI unit for measuring an electric current is the ampere, which is the flow of electric charge across a surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric current is measured using a device called an ammeter.[173]
free space, the electric displacement field is equivalent to flux density, a concept that lends understanding to Gauss's law. In the International System of Units
(SI), it is expressed in units of coulomb per meter squared (C⋅m−2).
circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines and even hand cranks
.
Electric field
Surrounds an electric charge, and exerts force on other charges in the field, attracting or repelling them.[174][175] Electric field is sometimes abbreviated as E-field.
charge distribution
and the other nuclei.
inverters or electrical generators. An electric generator
is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates in the reverse direction, accepting mechanical energy (such as from flowing water) and converting this mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Earth or a point at infinity
, although any point beyond the influence of the electric field charge can be used.
Coulomb forces and is associated with the configuration of a particular set of point charges within a defined system. An object may have electric potential energy by virtue of two key elements: its own electric charge and its relative position to other electrically charged objects. The term "electric potential energy" is used to describe the potential energy in systems with time-variant electric fields, while the term "electrostatic potential energy" is used to describe the potential energy in systems with time-invariant
electric fields.
SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second
.
electrical power
generation, distribution and use. .
Electrical conductance
The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the flow of electric current. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S).
electrical current
) in one or more directions. Materials made of metal are common electrical conductors. Electrical current is generated by the flow of negatively charged electrons, positively charged holes, and positive or negative ions in some cases.
circuit presents to a current when a voltage
is applied. The term complex impedance may be used interchangeably.
resistivity
; insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors.
batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches, transistors) or a model of such an interconnection, consisting of electrical elements (e.g., voltage sources, current sources, resistances, inductances, capacitances). An electrical circuit is a network consisting of a closed loop, giving a return path for the current. Linear electrical networks, a special type consisting only of sources (voltage or current), linear lumped elements (resistors, capacitors, inductors), and linear distributed elements (transmission lines), have the property that signals are linearly superimposable. They are thus more easily analyzed, using powerful frequency domain methods such as Laplace transforms, to determine DC response, AC response, and transient response
.
Electrical resistance
The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the flow of electric current. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S).
Electricity
Is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter that has a property of electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwell's equations. Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges and many others.
magnetic fields; the study of these phenomena.[176]
ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic core concentrates the magnetic flux
and makes a more powerful magnet.
gravitation, weak interaction and strong interaction
.)
Electromagnetic radiation
In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) refers to the waves (or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy.[178] It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, (visible) light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.[179]
Electromechanics
Electromechanics[180][181][182][183] combines processes and procedures drawn from electrical engineering and mechanical engineering. Electromechanics focuses on the interaction of electrical and mechanical systems as a whole and how the two systems interact with each other. This process is especially prominent in systems such as those of DC or AC rotating electrical machines which can be designed and operated to generate power from a mechanical process (generator) or used to power a mechanical effect (motor). Electrical engineering in this context also encompasses electronics engineering.
de Broglie wavelength
for a given energy.
Electronvolt
In physics, an electronvolt (symbol eV, also written electron-volt and electron volt) is the amount of kinetic energy gained by a single electron accelerating from rest through an electric potential difference of one volt in vacuum. When used as a unit of energy, the numerical value of 1 eV in joules (symbol J) is equivalent to the numerical value of the charge of an electron in coulombs (symbol C). Under the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, this sets 1 eV equal to the exact value 1.602176634×10−19 J.[188]
Electron pair
In chemistry, an electron pair, or Lewis pair, consists of two electrons that occupy the same molecular orbital but have opposite spins. Gilbert N. Lewis introduced the concepts of both the electron pair and the covalent bond in a landmark paper he published in 1916.[189]
valence electrons
reside from the charged nucleus. The higher the associated electronegativity, the more an atom or a substituent group attracts electrons.
Electronics
Comprises the physics, engineering, technology and applications that deal with the emission, flow and control of electrons in vacuum and matter.[191] It uses active devices to control electron flow by amplification and rectification, which distinguishes it from classical electrical engineering which uses passive effects such as resistance, capacitance, and inductance to control current flow.
minerals, chemical compounds) is analyzed for its elemental and sometimes isotopic composition.[citation needed] Elemental analysis can be qualitative (determining what elements are present), and it can be quantitative (determining how much of each are present). Elemental analysis falls within the ambit of analytical chemistry
, the set of instruments involved in deciphering the chemical nature of our world.
Endothermic process
Is any process with an increase in the enthalpy H (or internal energy U) of the system.[192] In such a process, a closed system usually absorbs thermal energy from its surroundings, which is heat transfer into the system. It may be a chemical process, such as dissolving ammonium nitrate in water, or a physical process, such as the melting of ice cubes.
object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object.[note 1] Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton
.
clockwork motors in wind-up toys use elastic energy. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy
to create forces and ultimately motion.
Engineering
Is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings.[195] The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. The term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning "cleverness" and ingeniare, meaning "to contrive, devise".[196]
Engineering economics
Engineering economics, previously known as engineering economy, is a subset of economics concerned with the use and "...application of economic principles"[197] in the analysis of engineering decisions.[198] As a discipline, it is focused on the branch of economics known as microeconomics in that it studies the behavior of individuals and firms in making decisions regarding the allocation of limited resources. Thus, it focuses on the decision making process, its context and environment.[197] It is pragmatic by nature, integrating economic theory with engineering practice.[197] But, it is also a simplified application of microeconomic theory in that it assumes elements such as price determination, competition and demand/supply to be fixed inputs from other sources.[197] As a discipline though, it is closely related to others such as statistics, mathematics and cost accounting.[197] It draws upon the logical framework of economics but adds to that the analytical power of mathematics and statistics.[197]
Engineering ethics
Is the field of system of moral principles that apply to the practice of engineering. The field examines and sets the obligations by engineers to society, to their clients, and to the profession. As a scholarly discipline, it is closely related to subjects such as the philosophy of science, the philosophy of engineering, and the ethics of technology.
Environmental engineering
Is a job type that is a professional engineering discipline and takes from broad scientific topics like chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, hydraulics, hydrology, microbiology, and mathematics to create solutions that will protect and also improve the health of living organisms and improve the quality of the environment.[199][200] Environmental engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering and chemical engineering.
Engineering physics
Or engineering science, refers to the study of the combined disciplines of physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, and engineering, particularly computer, nuclear, electrical, electronic, aerospace, materials or mechanical engineering. By focusing on the scientific method as a rigorous basis, it seeks ways to apply, design, and develop new solutions in engineering.[201][202][203][204]
chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzyme catalysis in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life.[205]
: 8.1 
Escape velocity
The minimum velocity at which an object can escape a gravitation field.
interval estimator
, where the result would be a range of plausible values (or vectors or functions).
mathematical models have been developed such as plate theory, but the simplicity of beam theory makes it an important tool in the sciences, especially structural and mechanical engineering
.
Exothermic process
In thermodynamics, the term exothermic process (exo- : "outside") describes a process or reaction that releases energy from the system to its surroundings, usually in the form of heat, but also in a form of light (e.g. a spark, flame, or flash), electricity (e.g. a battery), or sound (e.g. explosion heard when burning hydrogen). Its etymology stems from the Greek prefix έξω (exō, which means "outwards") and the Greek word θερμικός (thermikόs, which means "thermal").[209]

F

Factor of safety
(FoS), also known as (and used interchangeably with) safety factor (SF), expresses how much stronger a system is than it needs to be for an intended load.
Falling bodies
.
Farad
[210] The farad (symbol: F) is the SI derived unit of electrical capacitance, the ability of a body to store an electrical charge. It is named after the English physicist Michael Faraday.
Faraday constant
Denoted by the symbol F and sometimes stylized as ℱ, is named after Michael Faraday. In physics and chemistry, this constant represents the magnitude of electric charge per mole of electrons.[211] It has the value
9.648533212...×104 C mol−1.[212]
This constant has a simple relation to two other physical constants:
where
e = 1.602176634×10−19 C;[213]
NA = 6.02214076×1023 mol−1.[214]
Both of these values have exact defined values, and hence F has a known exact value. NA is the Avogadro constant (the ratio of the number of particles, N, which is unitless, to the amount of substance, n, in units of moles), and e is the elementary charge or the magnitude of the charge of an electron. This relation holds because the amount of charge of a mole of electrons is equal to the amount of charge in one electron multiplied by the number of electrons in a mole.
Fermat's principle
In optics, Fermat's principle, or the principle of least time, named after French mathematician Pierre de Fermat, is the principle that the path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed in the least time. This principle is sometimes taken as the definition of a ray of light.[215] However, this version of the principle is not general; a more modern statement of the principle is that rays of light traverse the path of stationary optical length with respect to variations of the path.[216] In other words, a ray of light prefers the path such that there are other paths, arbitrarily nearby on either side, along which the ray would take almost exactly the same time to traverse.
Adolf Fick in 1855. They can be used to solve for the diffusion coefficient, D. Fick's first law can be used to derive his second law which in turn is identical to the diffusion equation
.
electromagnetic potential
. The FEM is a particular
partial differential equations in two or three space variables (i.e., some boundary value problems). To solve a problem, the FEM subdivides a large system into smaller, simpler parts that are called finite elements. This is achieved by a particular space discretization in the space dimensions, which is implemented by the construction of a mesh
of the object: the numerical domain for the solution, which has a finite number of points. The finite element method formulation of a boundary value problem finally results in a system of algebraic equations. The method approximates the unknown function over the domain.[217] The simple equations that model these finite elements are then assembled into a larger system of equations that models the entire problem. The FEM then uses
variational methods from the calculus of variations
to approximate a solution by minimizing an associated error function.
FIRST
For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology – is an organization founded by inventor Dean Kamen in 1989 to develop ways to inspire students in engineering and technology fields.
Fission
In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller, lighter nuclei. The fission process often produces gamma photons, and releases a very large amount of energy even by the energetic standards of radioactive decay.
Flow velocity
In continuum mechanics the flow velocity in fluid dynamics, also macroscopic velocity[218][219] in statistical mechanics, or drift velocity in electromagnetism, is a vector field used to mathematically describe the motion of a continuum. The length of the flow velocity vector is the flow speed and is a scalar. It is also called velocity field; when evaluated along a line, it is called a velocity profile (as in, e.g., law of the wall).
deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress, or external force. Fluids are a phase of matter and include liquids, gases, and plasmas. They are substances with zero shear modulus, or, in simpler terms, substances which cannot resist any shear force
applied to them.
Fluid dynamics
In physics and engineering, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids—liquids and gases. It has several subdisciplines, including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the study of liquids in motion).
Fluid mechanics
Is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them.[220] It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, civil, chemical and biomedical engineering, geophysics, oceanography, meteorology, astrophysics, and biology.
Fluid statics
Fluid statics, or hydrostatics, is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies "fluids at rest and the pressure in a fluid or exerted by a fluid on an immersed body".[221]
rotational speed. In particular, if we assume the flywheel's moment of inertia to be constant (i.e., a flywheel with fixed mass and second moment of area
revolving about some fixed axis) then the stored (rotational) energy is directly associated with the square of its rotational speed.
Airy disc, which is caused by diffraction from the optical system's aperture
. Aberrations tend worsen as the aperture diameter increases, while the Airy circle is smallest for large apertures.
SI unit is the joule
.
material property. The critical value of stress intensity factor in mode I
loading measured under plane strain conditions is known as the plane strain fracture toughness, denoted .[226] When a test fails to meet the thickness and other test requirements that are in place to ensure plane strain conditions, the fracture toughness value produced is given the designation . Fracture toughness is a quantitative way of expressing a material's resistance to crack propagation and standard values for a given material are generally available.
optical spectrum of the Sun
.
space-time curvature
, a body in free fall has no force acting on it.
instantaneous frequency of the wave. The technology is used in telecommunications, radio broadcasting, signal processing, and computing
.
atmosphere or 100 kPa
. When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid, it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point. Because of the ability of substances to supercool, the freezing point can easily appear to be below its actual value. When the "characteristic freezing point" of a substance is determined, in fact the actual methodology is almost always "the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice, that is, the melting point.[227]
Friction
Is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other.[228] There are several types of friction:
  • Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is subdivided into static friction ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between moving surfaces. With the exception of atomic or molecular friction, dry friction generally arises from the interaction of surface features, known as asperities (see Figure 1).
  • Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a
    viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.[229][230]
  • Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces.[231][232][233]
  • Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body.
  • Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes
    deformation.[230]
Function
In mathematics, a function[note 2] is a binary relation between two sets that associates every element of the first set to exactly one element of the second set. Typical examples are functions from integers to integers, or from the real numbers to real numbers.
periodic waveform. In music, the fundamental is the musical pitch of a note that is perceived as the lowest partial present. In terms of a superposition of sinusoids, the fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency sinusoidal in the sum of harmonically related frequencies, or the frequency of the difference between adjacent frequencies. In some contexts, the fundamental is usually abbreviated as f0, indicating the lowest frequency counting from zero.[234][235][236] In other contexts, it is more common to abbreviate it as f1, the first harmonic.[237][238][239][240][241] (The second harmonic is then f2=2⋅f1, etc. In this context, the zeroth harmonic would be 0 Hz
.)
Fundamental interaction
In physics, the fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces, are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist: the gravitational and electromagnetic interactions, which produce significant long-range forces whose effects can be seen directly in everyday life, and the strong and weak interactions, which produce forces at minuscule, subatomic distances and govern nuclear interactions. Some scientists hypothesize that a fifth force might exist, but these hypotheses remain speculative.[242][243][244]
Fundamental theorem of calculus
Is a theorem that links the concept of differentiating a function with the concept of integrating a function.
ABET-accredited engineering degree program. Some state licensure boards permit students to take it prior to their final year, and numerous states allow those who have never attended an approved program to take the exam if they have a state-determined number of years of work experience in engineering. Some states allow those with ABET-accredited "Engineering Technology" or "ETAC" degrees to take the examination. The state of Michigan has no admission pre-requisites for the FE.[245] The exam is administered by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying
(NCEES).

G

electrical battery. In common usage, the word "battery" has come to include a single galvanic cell, but a battery properly consists of multiple cells.[246]
Gamma rays
A gamma ray, or gamma radiation (symbol γ or ), is a penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of the shortest wavelength electromagnetic waves and so imparts the highest photon energy.
air
, contains a variety of pure gases. What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles.
Gauge pressure
Is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure.
nuclear industry
.
four-dimensional spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations
.
Geometric mean
In mathematics, the geometric mean is a mean or average, which indicates the central tendency or typical value of a set of numbers by using the product of their values (as opposed to the arithmetic mean which uses their sum). The geometric mean is defined as the nth root of the product of n numbers, i.e., for a set of numbers x1, x2, ..., xn, the geometric mean is defined as
Geometry
Is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space that are related with distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures.[247] A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer.
internal structure and composition; its dynamics and their surface expression in plate tectonics, the generation of magmas, volcanism and rock formation.[248] However, modern geophysics organizations and pure scientists use a broader definition that includes the water cycle including snow and ice; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar–terrestrial relations; and analogous problems associated with the Moon and other planets.[248][249][250][251][252]
Geotechnical engineering
Also known as geotechnics, is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles and methods of soil mechanics and rock mechanics for the solution of engineering problems and the design of engineering works. It also relies on knowledge of geology, hydrology, geophysics, and other related sciences.
electromagnetic force between two charged particles.[253] In layman's terms, they "glue" quarks together, forming hadrons such as protons and neutrons
. In technical terms, gluons are
electromagnetic interaction but lacks an electric charge. Gluons therefore participate in the strong interaction in addition to mediating it, making QCD significantly harder to analyze than quantum electrodynamics
(QED).
Graham's law
Graham's law of effusion (also called Graham's law of diffusion) was formulated by Scottish physical chemist Thomas Graham in 1848.[254] Graham found experimentally that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles.[254] This formula can be written as:
,
where:
Rate1 is the rate of effusion for the first gas. (volume or number of moles per unit time).
Rate2 is the rate of effusion for the second gas.
M1 is the molar mass of gas 1
M2 is the molar mass of gas 2.
Sir Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation and in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity
.
Gravitational energy
Gravitational energy or gravitational potential energy is the potential energy a massive object has in relation to another massive object due to gravity. It is the potential energy associated with the gravitational field, which is released (converted into kinetic energy) when the objects fall towards each other. Gravitational potential energy increases when two objects are brought further apart. For two pairwise interacting point particles, the gravitational potential energy is given by
where and are the masses of the two particles, is the distance between them, and is the gravitational constant.[255] Close to the Earth's surface, the gravitational field is approximately constant, and the gravitational potential energy of an object reduces to
where is the object's mass, is the gravity of Earth, and is the height of the object's center of mass above a chosen reference level.[255]
model used to explain the influences that a massive body extends into the space around itself, producing a force on another massive body.[256] Thus, a gravitational field is used to explain gravitational phenomena, and is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg). In its original concept, gravity was a force between point masses. Following Isaac Newton, Pierre-Simon Laplace attempted to model gravity as some kind of radiation field or fluid
, and since the 19th century, explanations for gravity have usually been taught in terms of a field model, rather than a point attraction. In a field model, rather than two particles attracting each other, the particles distort spacetime via their mass, and this distortion is what is perceived and measured as a "force".[citation needed] In such a model one states that matter moves in certain ways in response to the curvature of spacetime,[257] and that there is either no gravitational force,[258] or that gravity is a fictitious force.[259] Gravity is distinguished from other forces by its obedience to the equivalence principle.
infinitely far away from any mass, resulting in a negative potential at any finite
distance. In mathematics, the gravitational potential is also known as the Newtonian potential and is fundamental in the study of potential theory. It may also be used for solving the electrostatic and magnetostatic fields generated by uniformly charged or polarized ellipsoidal bodies.[260]
propagate as waves outward from their source at the speed of light. They were proposed by Henri Poincaré in 1905[261] and subsequently predicted in 1916[262][263] by Albert Einstein on the basis of his general theory of relativity.[264][265] Gravitational waves transport energy as gravitational radiation, a form of radiant energy similar to electromagnetic radiation.[266] Newton's law of universal gravitation, part of classical mechanics
, does not provide for their existence, since that law is predicated on the assumption that physical interactions propagate instantaneously (at infinite speed) – showing one of the ways the methods of classical physics are unable to explain phenomena associated with relativity.
physical objects, and the Moon's gravity causes the ocean tides. The gravitational attraction of the original gaseous matter present in the Universe caused it to begin coalescing and forming stars
and caused the stars to group together into galaxies, so gravity is responsible for many of the large-scale structures in the Universe. Gravity has an infinite range, although its effects become increasingly weaker as objects get further away.
vacuum state or the vacuum
.

H

Half-life
The period at which one-half of a quantity of an unstable isotope has decayed into other elements; the time at which half of a substance has diffused out of or otherwise reacted in a system.
Haptic
Tactile feedback technology using the operator's sense of touch. Also sometimes applied to robot manipulators with their own touch sensitivity.
strain, strength, toughness, viscoelasticity, and viscosity
.
Harmonic mean
In mathematics, the harmonic mean (sometimes called the subcontrary mean) is one of several kinds of average, and in particular, one of the Pythagorean means. Typically, it is appropriate for situations when the average of rates is desired. The harmonic mean can be expressed as the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the given set of observations. As a simple example, the harmonic mean of 1, 4, and 4 is
Heat
In thermodynamics, heat is energy in transfer to or from a thermodynamic system, by mechanisms other than thermodynamic work or transfer of matter.[268][269][270][271][272][273][274]
phase changes
. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the same system.
Helmholtz free energy
In thermodynamics, the Helmholtz free energy (or Helmholtz energy) is a thermodynamic potential that measures the useful work obtainable from a closed thermodynamic system at a constant temperature and volume (isothermal, isochoric). The negative of the change in the Helmholtz energy during a process is equal to the maximum amount of work that the system can perform in a thermodynamic process in which volume is held constant. If the volume were not held constant, part of this work would be performed as boundary work. This makes the Helmholtz energy useful for systems held at constant volume. Furthermore, at constant temperature, the Helmholtz free energy is minimized at equilibrium.
Henderson–Hasselbalch equation
In chemistry and biochemistry, the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation
can be used to estimate the pH of a buffer solution. The numerical value of the acid dissociation constant, Ka, of the acid is known or assumed. The pH is calculated for given values of the concentrations of the acid, HA and of a salt, MA, of its conjugate base, A−; for example, the solution may contain acetic acid and sodium acetate.
Henry's law
In physical chemistry, Henry's law is a gas law that states that the amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is proportional to its partial pressure above the liquid. The proportionality factor is called Henry's law constant. It was formulated by the English chemist William Henry, who studied the topic in the early 19th century.
Hertz
The SI unit of frequency, one cycle per second.
Hexapod
(platform) – a movable platform using six linear actuators. Often used in flight simulators they also have applications as a robotic manipulator.
Hexapod
(walker) – a six-legged walking robot, using a simple insect-like locomotion.
pneumatically driven and may use chain, fiber or wire rope as its lifting medium. The most familiar form is an elevator, the car of which is raised and lowered by a hoist mechanism. Most hoists couple to their loads using a lifting hook. Today, there are a few governing bodies for the North American overhead hoist industry which include the Hoist Manufactures Institute (HMI), ASME, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA
). HMI is a product counsel of the Material Handling Industry of America consisting of hoist manufacturers promoting safe use of their products.
Horsepower
In measurement systems that use feet, the unit of power.
Hot working
Or hot forming, any metal-working procedure (such as forging, rolling, extruding, etc.) carried out above the metal's recrystallization temperature.
far-field limit and in near-field diffraction and also reflection. It states that every point on a wavefront is itself the source of spherical wavelets, and the secondary wavelets emanating from different points mutually interfere.[275]
The sum of these spherical wavelets forms the wavefront.
Hydraulics
The study of fluid flow, or the generation of mechanical force and movement by liquid under pressure.
Hydrocarbon
A compound containing hydrogen and carbon atoms only; petroleum is made of hydrocarbons.

I

freezing point of pure water at one atmosphere; 0°C (32°F).[276]
Ideal gas
A model for gases that ignores intermolecular forces. Most gases are approximately ideal at some high temperature and low pressure.
Ideal gas constant
The constant in the gas law that relates pressure, volume and temperature.
Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of the empirical Boyle's law, Charles's law, Avogadro's law, and Gay-Lussac's law.[277]
The ideal gas law is often written in an empirical form:
where , and are the pressure, volume and temperature; is the amount of substance; and is the
ideal gas constant
. It is the same for all gases. It can also be derived from the microscopic kinetic theory, as was achieved (apparently independently) by August Krönig in 1856[278] and Rudolf Clausius in 1857.[279]
Identity
In mathematics, an identity is an equality relating one mathematical expression A to another mathematical expression B, such that A and B (which might contain some variables) produce the same value for all values of the variables within a certain range of validity.[280] In other words, A = B is an identity if A and B define the same functions, and an identity is an equality between functions that are differently defined. For example, and are identities.[280] Identities are sometimes indicated by the triple bar symbol ≡ instead of =, the equals sign.[281]
circuit presents to a current when a voltage
is applied.
Inclined plane
Also known as a ramp, is a flat supporting surface tilted at an angle, with one end higher than the other, used as an aid for raising or lowering a load.[282][283][284] The inclined plane is one of the six classical simple machines defined by Renaissance scientists. Inclined planes are widely used to move heavy loads over vertical obstacles; examples vary from a ramp used to load goods into a truck, to a person walking up a pedestrian ramp, to an automobile or railroad train climbing a grade.[284]
magnetic permeability of nearby materials.[286] An electronic component designed to add inductance to a circuit is called an inductor. It typically consists of a coil
or helix of wire.
passive two-terminal electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it.[287] An inductor typically consists of an insulated wire wound into a coil
.
machines and also improve the quality and productivity of systems, physical or social.[289]
direction
of motion. An aspect of this property is the tendency of objects to keep moving in a straight line at a constant speed, when no forces act upon them.
Infrasound
Infrasound, sometimes referred to as low-frequency sound, describes sound waves with a frequency below the lower limit of audibility (generally 20 Hz). Hearing becomes gradually less sensitive as frequency decreases, so for humans to perceive infrasound, the sound pressure must be sufficiently high. The ear is the primary organ for sensing low sound, but at higher intensities it is possible to feel infrasound vibrations in various parts of the body.
Integral
In mathematics, an integral assigns numbers to functions in a way that describes displacement, area, volume, and other concepts that arise by combining infinitesimal data. The process of finding integrals is called integration. Along with differentiation, integration is a fundamental operation of calculus,[b] and serves as a tool to solve problems in mathematics and physics involving the area of an arbitrary shape, the length of a curve, and the volume of a solid, among others.
Integral transform
In mathematics, an integral transform maps a function from its original function space into another function space via integration, where some of the properties of the original function might be more easily characterized and manipulated than in the original function space. The transformed function can generally be mapped back to the original function space using the inverse transform.
units of measurement starting with seven base units, which are the second (the unit of time with the symbol s), metre (length, m), kilogram (mass, kg), ampere (electric current, A), kelvin (thermodynamic temperature, K), mole (amount of substance, mol), and candela (luminous intensity, cd). The system allows for an unlimited number of additional units, called derived units, which can always be represented as products of powers of the base units.[Note 1] Twenty-two derived units have been provided with special names and symbols.[Note 2] The seven base units and the 22 derived units with special names and symbols may be used in combination to express other derived units,[Note 3] which are adopted to facilitate measurement of diverse quantities. The SI system also provides twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying power-of-ten (i.e. decimal) multiples and sub-multiples of SI units. The SI is intended to be an evolving system; units and prefixes are created and unit definitions are modified through international agreement as the technology of measurement
progresses and the precision of measurements improves.
statisticians
really had in mind.
medications, fuels, and agriculture.[290]
Ion
Is a particle, atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. The charge of the electron is considered negative by convention. The negative charge of an ion is equal and opposite to charged proton(s) considered positive by convention. The net charge of an ion is non-zero due to its total number of electrons being unequal to its total number of protons.
non-metal
in order to obtain a full valence shell for both atoms.
inner-shell electrons
causing it to be ejected.
neutrons in each atom.[292]

J

mean lifetime of 7.2×10−21 s. This lifetime was about a thousand times longer than expected.[294]
current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889).[296][297][298]
conductor produces heat
.

K

Kalman filter
In statistics and control theory, Kalman filtering, also known as linear quadratic estimation (LQE), is an algorithm that uses a series of measurements observed over time, containing statistical noise and other inaccuracies, and produces estimates of unknown variables that tend to be more accurate than those based on a single measurement alone, by estimating a joint probability distribution over the variables for each timeframe. The Kalman filter has numerous applications in technology.
Kelvin
Is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale using as its null point absolute zero, the temperature at which all thermal motion ceases in the classical description of thermodynamics. The kelvin (symbol: K) is the base unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI).
thermal reservoir and to deliver an equivalent amount of work.[299]
This implies that it is impossible to build a heat engine that has 100% thermal efficiency.[300]
motion of points, bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without considering the forces that caused the motion.[301][302][303]

L

eddies or swirls of fluids.[305] In laminar flow, the motion of the particles of the fluid is very orderly with particles close to a solid surface moving in straight lines parallel to that surface.[306]
Laminar flow is a flow regime characterized by high momentum diffusion and low momentum convection.
Laplace transform
In mathematics, the Laplace transform, named after its inventor Pierre-Simon Laplace (/ləˈplɑːs/), is an integral transform that converts a function of a real variable (often time) to a function of a complex variable (
complex frequency). The transform has many applications in science and engineering because it is a tool for solving differential equations. In particular, it transforms differential equations into algebraic equations and convolution into multiplication.[307][308]
LC circuit
A circuit consisting entirely of inductors (L) and capacitors (C).
Le Chatelier's principle
Le Chatelier's principle, also called Chatelier's principle, is a principle of chemistry used to predict the effect of a change in conditions on chemical equilibria. The principle is named after French chemist Henry Louis Le Chatelier, and sometimes also credited to Karl Ferdinand Braun, who discovered it independently. It can be stated as:

When any system at equilibrium for a long period of time is subjected to a change in concentration, temperature, volume, or pressure, (1) the system changes to a new equilibrium, and (2) this change partly counteracts the applied change.

It is common to treat the principle as a more general observation of systems,[309] such as

When a settled system is disturbed, it will adjust to diminish the change that has been made to it

or, "roughly stated",[309]

Any change in status quo prompts an opposing reaction in the responding system.

Lenz's law
Lenz's law, named after the physicist Emil Lenz who formulated it in 1834,[310] states that the direction of the electric current which is induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field. It is a qualitative law that specifies the direction of induced current, but states nothing about its magnitude. Lenz's law explains the direction of many effects in electromagnetism, such as the direction of voltage induced in an inductor or wire loop by a changing current, or the drag force of eddy currents exerted on moving objects in a magnetic field. Lenz's law may be seen as analogous to Newton's third law in classical mechanics.[311]
composite particles such as atoms and positronium, while neutrinos rarely interact with anything, and are consequently rarely observed. The best known of all leptons is the electron
.
leverage is mechanical advantage gained in a system. It is one of the six simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists. A lever amplifies an input force to provide a greater output force, which is said to provide leverage. The ratio of the output force to the input force is the mechanical advantage of the lever. As such, the lever is a mechanical advantage device
, trading off force against movement.
L'Hôpital's rule
In mathematics, more specifically calculus, L'Hôpital's rule or L'Hospital's rule (French: [lopital], English: /ˌloʊpiːˈtɑːl/, loh-pee-TAHL) provides a technique to evaluate limits of indeterminate forms. Application (or repeated application) of the rule often converts an indeterminate form to an expression that can be easily evaluated by substitution. The rule is named after the 17th-century French mathematician Guillaume de l'Hôpital. Although the rule is often attributed to L'Hôpital, the theorem was first introduced to him in 1694 by the Swiss mathematician Johann Bernoulli. L'Hôpital's rule states that for functions f and g which are differentiable on an open interval I except possibly at a point c contained in I, if and for all x in I with x ≠ c, and exists, then
The differentiation of the numerator and denominator often simplifies the quotient or converts it to a limit that can be evaluated directly.
terahertz
(THz).
Linear actuator
Is an actuator that creates motion in a straight line, in contrast to the circular motion of a conventional electric motor. Linear actuators are used in machine tools and industrial machinery, in computer peripherals such as disk drives and printers, in valves and dampers, and in many other places where linear motion is required. Hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders inherently produce linear motion. Many other mechanisms are used to generate linear motion from a rotating motor.
Linear algebra
The mathematics of equations where the unknowns are only in the first power.
Linear elasticity
Is a mathematical model of how solid objects deform and become internally stressed due to prescribed loading conditions. It is a simplification of the more general nonlinear theory of elasticity and a branch of continuum mechanics.
intermolecular bonds. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container. Most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, and maintains a fairly constant density. A distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. Water
is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth.
exponent to which another fixed number, the base b, must be raised, to produce that number x. In the simplest case, the logarithm counts the number of occurrences of the same factor in repeated multiplication; e.g., since 1000 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 103, the "logarithm base 10" of 1000 is 3, or log10(1000) = 3. The logarithm of x to base b is denoted as logb(x), or without parentheses, logb x, or even without the explicit base, log x, when no confusion is possible, or when the base does not matter such as in big O notation
. More generally, exponentiation allows any positive real number as base to be raised to any real power, always producing a positive result, so logb(x) for any two positive real numbers b and x, where b is not equal to 1, is always a unique real number y. More explicitly, the defining relation between exponentiation and logarithm is:
exactly if and and and .
For example, log2 64=6, as 26=64. The logarithm base 10 (that is b=10) is called the decimal or common logarithm and is commonly used in science and engineering. The natural logarithm has the number e (that is b ≈ 2.718) as its base; its use is widespread in mathematics and physics, because of its simpler integral and derivative. The binary logarithm uses base 2 (that is b=2) and is frequently used in computer science. Logarithms are examples of concave functions.
Logarithmic identities
Several important formulas, sometimes called logarithmic identities or log laws, relate logarithms to one another.[316]
logarithmic average
of the temperature difference between the hot and cold feeds at each end of the double pipe exchanger. For a given heat exchanger with constant area and heat transfer coefficient, the larger the LMTD, the more heat is transferred. The use of the LMTD arises straightforwardly from the analysis of a heat exchanger with constant flow rate and fluid thermal properties.
electrical resistance
as well.
finite dimension, and the partial differential equations (PDEs) of the continuous (infinite-dimensional) time and space model of the physical system into ordinary differential equations
(ODEs) with a finite number of parameters.

M–Z

Further information: Glossary of engineering: M–Z

See also

Notes

  1. ISSN 0031-921X
    .
  2. ^ The words map, mapping, transformation, correspondence, and operator are often used synonymously. Halmos 1970, p. 30.
  1. ^ "Newtonian constant of gravitation" is the name introduced for G by Boys (1894). Use of the term by T.E. Stern (1928) was misquoted as "Newton's constant of gravitation" in Pure Science Reviewed for Profound and Unsophisticated Students (1930), in what is apparently the first use of that term. Use of "Newton's constant" (without specifying "gravitation" or "gravity") is more recent, as "Newton's constant" was also used for the heat transfer coefficient in Newton's law of cooling, but has by now become quite common, e.g. Calmet et al, Quantum Black Holes (2013), p. 93; P. de Aquino, Beyond Standard Model Phenomenology at the LHC (2013), p. 3. The name "Cavendish gravitational constant", sometimes "Newton–Cavendish gravitational constant", appears to have been common in the 1970s to 1980s, especially in (translations from) Soviet-era Russian literature, e.g. Sagitov (1970 [1969]), Soviet Physics: Uspekhi 30 (1987), Issues 1–6, p. 342 [etc.]. "Cavendish constant" and "Cavendish gravitational constant" is also used in Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, "Gravitation", (1973), 1126f. Colloquial use of "Big G", as opposed to "
    little g" for gravitational acceleration dates to the 1960s (R.W. Fairbridge, The encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences and astrogeology, 1967, p. 436; note use of "Big G's" vs. "little g's" as early as the 1940s of the Einstein tensor Gμν vs. the metric tensor
    gμν, Scientific, medical, and technical books published in the United States of America: a selected list of titles in print with annotations: supplement of books published 1945–1948, Committee on American Scientific and Technical Bibliography National Research Council, 1950, p. 26).
  2. ^ Integral calculus is a very well established mathematical discipline for which there are many sources. See Apostol 1967 and Anton, Bivens & Davis 2016, for example.
  1. ^ For example, the SI unit of velocity is the metre per second, m⋅s−1; of acceleration is the metre per second squared, m⋅s−2; etc.
  2. ^ For example the newton (N), the unit of force, equivalent to kg⋅m⋅s−2; the joule (J), the unit of energy, equivalent to kg⋅m2⋅s−2, etc. The most recently named derived unit, the katal, was defined in 1999.
  3. ^ For example, the recommended unit for the electric field strength is the volt per metre, V/m, where the volt is the derived unit for electric potential difference. The volt per metre is equal to kg⋅m⋅s−3⋅A−1 when expressed in terms of base units.

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  300. ISBN 978-0-321-50125-7
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  301. ISBN 0-521-35883-3
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  302. ISBN 0-89116-355-7
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  303. ^ Thomas Wallace Wright (1896). Elements of Mechanics Including Kinematics, Kinetics and Statics. E and FN Spon. Chapter 1.
  304. ^ Streeter, V.L. (1951-1966) Fluid Mechanics, Section 3.3 (4th edition). McGraw-Hill
  305. ISBN 978-0-13-101367-4. Archived
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  306. ^ Noakes, Cath; Sleigh, Andrew (January 2009). "Real Fluids". An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. University of Leeds. Archived from the original on 21 October 2010. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
  307. ^ "Differential Equations – Laplace Transforms". tutorial.math.lamar.edu. Retrieved 2020-08-08.
  308. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Laplace Transform". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2020-08-08.
  309. ^ a b Gall, John (2002). The Systems Bible (3rd ed.). General Systemantics Press. The System always kicks back
  310. ^ Lenz, E. (1834), "Ueber die Bestimmung der Richtung der durch elektodynamische Vertheilung erregten galvanischen Ströme", Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 107 (31), pp. 483–494. A partial translation of the paper is available in Magie, W. M. (1963), A Source Book in Physics, Harvard: Cambridge MA, pp. 511–513.
  311. ^ Schmitt, Ron. Electromagnetics explained. 2002. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
  312. ^ "Lepton (physics)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2010-09-29.
  313. ISBN 978-3-900734-07-7
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  314. ISBN 978-81-250-2021-9
    . Retrieved 11 October 2013. The human eye has the ability to respond to all the wavelengths of light from 400–700 nm. This is called the visible part of the spectrum.
  315. ISBN 978-0-262-02336-8
    . Retrieved 11 October 2013. Light is a special class of radiant energy embracing wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm (or mμ), or 4000 to 7000 Å.
  316. ^ All statements in this section can be found in Shirali 2002, Section 4, Downing 2003, p. 275, or Kate & Bhapkar 2009, p. 1-1, for example.
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Works cited
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