Cognitive specialization

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Cognitive specialization suggests that certain behaviors, often in the domain of social communication, are passed on to offspring and refined to be maximally beneficial by the process of natural selection. Specializations serve an

bottlenose dolphins
.

Background

First studied as an adaptive mechanism specific to humans,

habitats; this requires becoming specialized in behaviors that improve an organism's likelihood of survival and reproduction. Not to be confused with functional specialization, which examines the specific parts of the brain that are engaged during specific behaviors or processes,[2] cognitive specialization is focused on characteristics of the mind (an internal entity), which in turn affects external behaviors. Most of these specializations are thought to have developed in areas of the neocortex unique to humans.[3] The most significant cognitive specializations among humans include theory of mind and language acquisition and production, while non-human animals may specialize in foraging behavior,[4]
self-awareness, or other adaptive abilities.

Social behavior

Social communication is critical to effective human interaction, and has evolved over time to support the complex exchange of ideas.

neuropsychiatric populations.[9]

Evidence for universality

If social behavior is to be considered a cognitive specialization unique to human neural architecture, it should be present in every human society.[11] To provide cross-cultural evidence that cognitive adaptations specifically support social communication, Sugiyama, Tooby, and Cosmides investigated social reasoning in a tribe in the Ecuadorian Amazon.[11] The Shiwiar, who are a hunter-horticulturalist group previously unexposed to the presented psychological stimuli, were "as highly proficient" in determining who cheated in a given situation as their counterparts in the United States.[11] This performance indicates that social communication, at least in the domain of cheater detection, is not determined by one's culture. According to Sugiyama, Tooby, and Cosimdes, the social "algorithms" discussed above are present in both Western and non-Western populations, providing strong evidence for the universality of such a skill.[8][11]

Theory of mind

Theory of mind, or the ability to attribute mental states to other people, is thought to be a cognitive specialization unique to humans, with a few possible exceptions discussed below.[12][13] Theory of mind is thought to be critical in social cognition and communication because it allows us to distinguish between accidental and purposeful actions, to make judgments about others' internal states, and to determine how another's thoughts may differ from our own.[1] The acquisition of theory of mind in humans mostly takes place during early childhood, and is thought to be fully developed by the early school years.[14] Theory of mind research in chimpanzees by social psychologists David Premack and Guy Woodruff in 1978 brought it to the forefront of psychological inquiry, though true theory of mind is only thought to exist in humans.[15] This phenomenon has been analyzed in many fields, and it is thought to be among the most beneficial specializations for survival of the human species, due to its facilitation of cooperation and interpersonal relationships.[16]

In autism

Theory of mind appears to be lacking in children with

social groups. This adaptability is what makes theory of mind a cognitive specialization, rather than just another byproduct of human evolution: humankind has unique and beneficial communication skills, and this is partially due to our ability to recognize that other people may not think or know the same things we do.[1]

Language

Though some (including Bates et al.

double dissociation between general intelligence and language to argue for language as a specific adaptation. Those who lose language capabilities due to traumatic brain injury or stroke but maintain many other cognitive abilities exemplify Pinker's idea that language and general cognition are not always perfectly overlapping in human behavior.[19] Using language "multiplies the benefit of knowledge" in multiple domains, including technology, tool use, and intentions of ourselves and others.[19]

Evolution

Arbib puts forth a hypothesis that

ecological theories that incorporate social demands; or, as Flinn et al. put it, a "social arms race" against non-human primates.[22] As a behavior selected for over the long term, with many successful "intermediary stages," human language differs from all other social behaviors among chimpanzees, which are thought to be more gradual in their evolutionary development.[22] Further evidence for language as a cognitive specialization includes Ferreira et al.'s finding that some parts of language (for instance, syntax) can be spared in amnesia, while other abilities (like memory retention) are drastically reduced.[23] This and similar dissociations support the theory that specific neural architecture, which has evolved over time, supports language function.[23]

Universal Grammar

Linguist

genetically pre-disposed to learn language.[26] Complementary to the connection made between area F5 in macaques' brains,[20] the theory of Universal Grammar allows for an evolutionary perspective on language use as a cognitive specialization. There is some controversy, however, on whether or not Universal Grammar can have evolved by standard Darwinian evolutionary principles, or must be explained using different mechanisms.[27]

Benefits

According to Nowak and Sigmund, language is essential to human life as we know it.

linguists argue, humans would not be able to share information efficiently and effectively.[28]

Other possible specializations

Watson et al. provide support for a specific specialization in language-dependent

religious thought and behavior" is a specialization that originally developed as a by-product of brain function, and its adaptive purposes led to its continued evolution by natural selection.[32] Krueger et al. (2007) have argued that trust, which may form the foundation for helping and altruism and thus the basis of human social interaction, is also a cognitive specialization.[33]

Non-human specialization

In non-human primates

Rhesus monkeys have also been shown to realize when they remember certain events and items, which is considered to be an instrumental building block in the formation of social relationships, as one must remember who owes him favors, who he can trust, and who he should avoid in order to prosper in the community.[37]

In other animals

More recent evidence has shown that cognitive specialization is not just present in

crows.[44]

See also

References

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Further reading

External links
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