Criteria of truth
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In epistemology, criteria of truth (or tests of truth) are standards and rules used to judge the accuracy of statements and claims. They are tools of verification, and as in the problem of the criterion, the reliability of these tools is disputed. Understanding a philosophy's criteria of truth is fundamental to a clear evaluation of that philosophy. This necessity is driven by the varying, and conflicting, claims of different philosophies. The rules of logic have no ability to distinguish truth on their own. An individual must determine what standards distinguish truth from falsehood. Not all criteria are equally valid. Some standards are sufficient, while others are questionable.[1]
The criteria listed represent those most commonly used by scholars and the general public.[2]
Authority
The opinions of those with significant experience, highly trained or possessing an advanced degree are often considered a form of
Coherence
Coherence refers to a consistent and overarching explanation for all facts. To be coherent, all pertinent facts must be arranged in a consistent and cohesive fashion as an integrated whole. The theory that most effectively reconciles all facts in this fashion may be considered most likely to be true. Coherence is the most potentially effective test of truth because it most adequately addresses all elements. The main limitation lies not in the standard, but in the
Consensus gentium
Some view opinions held by all people to be valid criteria of truth. According to consensus gentium, the universal consent of all mankind (all humans holding a distinct belief), proves it is true. There is some value in the criterion if it means innate truth, such as the laws of logic and
Consistency (mere)
Mere
Consistency (strict)
Strict consistency is when claims are connected in such a fashion that one statement follows from another.
Correspondence
Correspondence is quite simply when a claim corresponds with its object. For example, the claim that the White House is in Washington, D.C. is true, if the White House is actually located in Washington. Correspondence is held by many philosophers to be the most valid of the criteria of truth. An idea that corresponds to its object is indeed true, but determining if the correspondence is perfect requires additional tests of truth. This indicates that correspondence is a perfectly valid definition of truth, but is not of itself a valid criterion of truth. An additional test beyond this "definition" is required to determine the precise degree of similarity between what is posited and what exists in
Custom
Most people consciously or unknowingly employ
Emotions
Many people allow feelings to determine judgment, often in the face of contrary evidence or without even attempting to collect evidence and facts. They are implicitly accepting
Instinct
The existence of distinct instincts has long been debated. Proponents of instinct argue that we eat because of hunger, drink because of thirst, and so forth. Some have even argued for the existence of God based on this criterion, arguing that the object of every instinct has a referent in reality. The counterpoint of hunger is food; for thirst it is liquid; for the sex drive it is a mate. Instincts are not accepted as a reliable test because they are most often indistinct, variant and difficult to define. Additionally, universal instincts are so few that they offer little to the greater body of philosophy as a criterion.[10]
Intuition
Majority rule
Naïve realism
Pragmatic
If an idea works then it must be true, to the Pragmatist. The consequences of applying a concept reveal its truth value upon examination of the results. The full meaning of an idea is self-apparent in its application. For example, the therapeutic value and effect of penicillin in relation to infections is proven in its administration. Although pragmatism is considered a valuable criterion, it must be used with caution and reservation, due to its potential for false positives. For example, a doctor may prescribe a patient medication for an illness, but it could later turn out that a placebo is equally effective. Thus, untrue concepts could appear to be working contrary to the purpose of the pragmatic test. However, it has validity as a test, particularly in the form William Ernest Hocking called "negative pragmatism". In essence, it states that ideas that do not work cannot possibly be true, though ideas which do work may or may not be true.[13]
Revelation
The principal distinction between intuition and revelation is that revelation has an assumed source: God (or another higher power). Revelation may be defined as truth emanating from God. Many religions fundamentally rely on revelation as a test of truth. This criterion is subject to the same criticisms as intuition. It may be a valid reference of truth for an individual, but it is inadequate for providing a coherent proof of the knowledge to others.[14]
Time
Time is a criterion commonly appealed to in debate, often referred to as "the test of time". This criterion posits that over time erroneous beliefs and logical errors will be revealed, while if the belief is true, the mere passage of time cannot adversely affect its validity. Time is an inadequate test for truth, since it is subject to similar flaws as custom and tradition (which are simply specific variations of the time factor). Many demonstrably false beliefs have endured for centuries and even millennia (e.g. vitalism). It is commonly rejected as a valid criterion. For example, most people will not convert to another faith simply because the other religion is centuries (or even millennia) older than their current beliefs.[15]
Tradition
Tradition, closely related to custom, is the standard stating that which is held for generations is true. Those accepting tradition argue that ideas gaining the loyalty multiple generations possesses a measure of credibility. Tradition possesses many of the same failings as custom. It is possible for falsehoods to be passed down from generation to generation, since tradition generally emphasizes repetition over critical evaluation.[8]
See also
- Anekantavada
- Conceptual framework
- Contextualism
- Degrees of truth
- Exclusive disjunction
- Fallibilism
- False dilemma
- Fuzzy logic
- List of cognitive biases
- Logical equality
- Logical value
- Multi-valued logic
- Münchhausen trilemma
- Pluralist theories of truth
- Principle of bivalence
- Propositional logic
- Relativism
Footnotes
- ISBN 1-56619-271-4.
- ^ Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, pg. 3.
- ^ Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, pp. 10–11.
- ^ a b Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, p. 7.
- ^ a b Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, p. 10.
- ^ Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, p. 8.
- ^ a b Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, p. 4.
- ^ Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, p. 5.
- ^ Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, p. 6.
- ^ Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas of the Great Philosophers, p. 9.
- ^ Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Sahakian & Sahakian, Ideas, pp. 4–5.