Gravitational-wave observatory
A gravitational-wave detector (used in a gravitational-wave observatory) is any device designed to measure tiny distortions of
The first direct observation of gravitational waves was made in September 2015 by the Advanced LIGO observatories, detecting gravitational waves with wavelengths of a few thousand kilometers from a merging binary of stellar black holes. In June 2023, four pulsar timing array collaborations presented the first strong evidence for a gravitational wave background of wavelengths spanning light years, most likely from many binaries of supermassive black holes.[1]
Challenge
The direct detection of gravitational waves is complicated by the extraordinarily small effect the waves produce on a detector. The amplitude of a spherical wave falls off as the inverse of the distance from the source. Thus, even waves from extreme systems such as merging binary black holes die out to a very small amplitude by the time they reach the Earth. Astrophysicists predicted that some gravitational waves passing the Earth might produce differential motion on the order 10−18 m in a LIGO-size instrument.[2]
Resonant mass antennas
A simple device to detect the expected wave motion is called a resonant mass antenna – a large, solid body of metal isolated from outside vibrations. This type of instrument was the first type of gravitational-wave detector. Strains in space due to an incident gravitational wave excite the body's
There are three types of resonant mass antenna that have been built: room-temperature bar antennas, cryogenically cooled bar antennas and cryogenically cooled spherical antennas.
The earliest type was the room-temperature bar-shaped antenna called a Weber bar; these were dominant in 1960s and 1970s and many were built around the world. It was claimed by Weber and some others in the late 1960s and early 1970s that these devices detected gravitational waves; however, other experimenters failed to detect gravitational waves using them, and a consensus developed that Weber bars would not be a practical means to detect gravitational waves.[3]
The second generation of resonant mass antennas, developed in the 1980s and 1990s, were the cryogenic bar antennas which are also sometimes called Weber bars. In the 1990s there were five major cryogenic bar antennas: AURIGA (Padua, Italy), NAUTILUS (Rome, Italy), EXPLORER (CERN, Switzerland), ALLEGRO (Louisiana, US), and NIOBE (Perth, Australia). In 1997, these five antennas run by four research groups formed the International Gravitational Event Collaboration (IGEC) for collaboration. While there were several cases of unexplained deviations from the background signal, there were no confirmed instances of the observation of gravitational waves with these detectors.
In the 1980s, there was also a cryogenic bar antenna called
These modern cryogenic forms of the Weber bar operated with
In the 2000s, the third generation of resonant mass antennas, the spherical cryogenic antennas, emerged. Four spherical antennas were proposed around year 2000 and two of them were built as downsized versions, the others were cancelled. The proposed antennas were GRAIL (Netherlands, downsized to MiniGRAIL), TIGA (US, small prototypes made), SFERA (Italy), and Graviton (Brasil, downsized to Mario Schenberg).
The two downsized antennas,
It is the current consensus that current cryogenic resonant mass detectors are not sensitive enough to detect anything but extremely powerful (and thus very rare) gravitational waves.[citation needed] As of 2020, no detection of gravitational waves by cryogenic resonant antennas has occurred.
Laser interferometers
A more sensitive detector uses laser
Even with such long arms, the strongest gravitational waves will only change the distance between the ends of the arms by at most roughly 10−18 meters. LIGO should be able to detect gravitational waves as small as . Upgrades to LIGO and other detectors such as Virgo, GEO600, and TAMA 300 should increase the sensitivity further, and the next generation of instruments (Advanced LIGO Plus and Advanced Virgo Plus) will be more sensitive still. Another highly sensitive interferometer (KAGRA) began operations in 2020.[8][9] A key point is that a ten-times increase in sensitivity (radius of "reach") increases the volume of space accessible to the instrument by one thousand. This increases the rate at which detectable signals should be seen from one per tens of years of observation, to tens per year.
Interferometric detectors are limited at high frequencies by
Space-based interferometers, such as
Einstein@Home
In some sense, the easiest signals to detect should be constant sources. Supernovae and neutron star or black hole mergers should have larger amplitudes and be more interesting, but the waves generated will be more complicated. The waves given off by a spinning, bumpy neutron star would be "
. It would not change very much in amplitude or frequency.The Einstein@Home project is a distributed computing project similar to SETI@home intended to detect this type of simple gravitational wave. By taking data from LIGO and GEO, and sending it out in little pieces to thousands of volunteers for parallel analysis on their home computers, Einstein@Home can sift through the data far more quickly than would be possible otherwise.[10]
Pulsar timing arrays
A different approach to detecting gravitational waves is used by
In June 2023, four pulsar timing array collaborations, the three mentioned above and the Chinese Pulsar Timing Array, presented independent but similar evidence for a stochastic background of nanohertz gravitational waves. The source of this background could not yet be identified.[15][16][17][18]
Detection in the cosmic microwave background
The cosmic microwave background, radiation left over from when the Universe cooled sufficiently for the
On 17 March 2014, astronomers at the
Novel detector designs
There are currently two detectors focusing on detections at the higher end of the gravitational-wave spectrum (10−7 to 105 Hz)[citation needed]: one at University of Birmingham, England, and the other at INFN Genoa, Italy. A third is under development at Chongqing University, China. The Birmingham detector measures changes in the polarization state of a microwave beam circulating in a closed loop about one meter across. Two have been fabricated and they are currently expected to be sensitive to periodic spacetime strains of , given as an
Levitated Sensor Detector is a proposed detector for gravitational waves with a frequency between 10 kHz and 300 kHz, potentially coming from primordial black holes.[29] It will use optically-levitated dielectric particles in an optical cavity.[30]
A torsion-bar antenna (TOBA) is a proposed design composed of two, long, thin bars, suspended as torsion pendula in a cross-like fashion, in which the differential angle is sensitive to tidal gravitational wave forces.
Detectors based on matter waves (atom interferometers) have also been proposed and are being developed.[31][32] There have been proposals since the beginning of the 2000s.[33] Atom interferometry is proposed to extend the detection bandwidth in the infrasound band (10 mHz – 10 Hz),[34][35] where current ground based detectors are limited by low frequency gravity noise.[36] A demonstrator project called Matter wave laser based Interferometer Gravitation Antenna (MIGA) started construction in 2018 in the underground environment of LSBB (Rustrel, France).[37]
List of gravitational wave detectors
Resonant mass detectors
- First generation[39]
- Weber bar (1960s–80s)
- Second generation[39]
- Third generation
- Mario Schenberg (São Paulo, 2003–)
- MiniGrail (Leiden, 2003–)
Interferometers
Interferometric gravitational-wave detectors are often grouped into generations based on the technology used.[40][41] The interferometric detectors deployed in the 1990s and 2000s were proving grounds for many of the foundational technologies necessary for initial detection and are commonly referred to as the first generation.[41][40] The second generation of detectors operating in the 2010s, mostly at the same facilities like LIGO and Virgo, improved on these designs with sophisticated techniques such as cryogenic mirrors and the injection of squeezed vacuum.[41] This led to the first unambiguous detection of a gravitational wave by Advanced LIGO in 2015. The third generation of detectors are currently in the planning phase, and seek to improve over the second generation by achieving greater detection sensitivity and a larger range of accessible frequencies. All these experiments involve many technologies under continuous development over multiple decades, so the categorization by generation is necessarily only rough.
- First generation
- (1995) TAMA 300
- (1995) GEO600
- (2002) LIGO
- (2006) CLIO
- (2007) Virgo interferometer
- Second generation
- (2010) GEO High Frequency[42][41]
- (2015) Advanced LIGO[41]
- (2016) Advanced Virgo[41]
- (2019) KAGRA (LCGT)[41]
- (2023) IndIGO (LIGO-India)[43]
- (defunct) AIGO[41]
- Third generation
- (2030s) Einstein Telescope
- (2030s) Cosmic Explorer
- Space based
- (2035) TianQin
- (2030s?) Taiji (gravitational wave observatory)
- (2027) Deci-hertz Interferometer Gravitational wave Observatory (DECIGO)
- (2034) Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA Pathfinder, a development mission, was launched December 2015)
Pulsar timing
See also
References
- ^ Conover, Emily (15 September 2023). "Scientists have two ways to spot gravitational waves. Here are some other ideas". sciencenews.org. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
Just as light comes in a spectrum, or a variety of wavelengths, so do gravitational waves. Different wavelengths point to different types of cosmic origins and require different flavors of detectors.
- ^ Whitcomb, S.E., "Precision Laser Interferometry in the LIGO Project", Proceedings of the International Symposium on Modern Problems in Laser Physics, 27 August – 3 September 1995, Novosibirsk, LIGO Publication P950007-01-R
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- ^ "MiniGRAIL, the first spherical gravitational wave detector". www.minigrail.nl. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ^ de Waard, Arlette; Gottardi, Luciano; Frossati, Giorgio (2000), Spherical Gravitational Wave Detectors: cooling and quality factor of a small CuAl6% sphere - In: Marcel Grossmann meeting on General Relativity, Rome, Italy
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ The idea of using laser interferometry for gravitational-wave detection was first mentioned by Gerstenstein and Pustovoit 1963 Sov. Phys.–JETP 16 433. Weber mentioned it in an unpublished laboratory notebook. Rainer Weiss first described in detail a practical solution with an analysis of realistic limitations to the technique in R. Weiss (1972). "Electromagnetically Coupled Broadband Gravitational Antenna". Quarterly Progress Report, Research Laboratory of Electronics, MIT 105: 54.
- ^ "KAGRA Gravitational-wave Telescope Starts Observation". KAGRA Observatory. 25 February 2020. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
- ^ 大型低温重力波望遠鏡KAGRA観測開始 (in Japanese). National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. 25 February 2020. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
- ^ "Einstein@Home". Retrieved 5 April 2019.
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- ^ "North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves". www.nanograv.org. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
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- ^ Clavin, Whitney (17 March 2014). "NASA Technology Views Birth of the Universe". NASA. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
- ^ Overbye, Dennis (17 March 2014). "Detection of Waves in Space Buttresses Landmark Theory of Big Bang". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
- ^ Overbye, Dennis (24 March 2014). "Ripples From the Big Bang". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
- ^ Overbye, Dennis (19 June 2014). "Astronomers Hedge on Big Bang Detection Claim". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 June 2014.
- ^ Amos, Jonathan (19 June 2014). "Cosmic inflation: Confidence lowered for Big Bang signal". BBC News. Retrieved 20 June 2014.
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- ^ "Northwestern leads effort to detect new types of cosmic events". 16 July 2019.
- ^ "A Novel Tabletop Gravitational-wave Detector for Frequencies > 10 kHz Phase II". Retrieved 19 July 2019.
- ^ University, Stanford (25 September 2019). "A different kind of gravitational wave detector". Stanford News. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
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- ^ Johnson, David Marvin Slaughter (2011). "AGIS-LEO". Long Baseline Atom Interferometry. Stanford University. pp. 41–98.
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- ^ Moore, Christopher; Cole, Robert; Berry, Christopher (19 July 2013). "Gravitational Wave Detectors and Sources". Archived from the original on 16 April 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
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- ^ "GEO High Frequency and Squeezing". www.geo600.org. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
- ^ Bhattacharya, Papiya (25 March 2016). "India's LIGO Detector Has the Money it Needs, a Site in Sight, and a Completion Date Too". The Wire. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
External links
- Video (04:36) – Detecting a gravitational wave, NYT(11 February 2016).
- Video (71:29) – Press Conference announcing discovery: "LIGO detects gravitational waves", National Science Foundation (11 February 2016).