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Higher education in the Arab world is non-compulsory, formal education that occurs after secondary education in the twenty-two
Arab states. The landscape of higher education in the Arab world is characterized by its dynamic evolution, reflecting the region's diverse cultural and socio-economic contexts across 22 countries in the Middle East and North Africa.[1] From its origins in ancient centers of learning to the modern institutions shaping intellectual discourse today, the sector has undergone significant transformations throughout history.[2]
The Arab world is home to one of the oldest universities in the world, Al-Azhar University, established in the tenth century C.E. in Cairo. Initially founded as a center for men to study Islamic law and theology, Al-Azhar now offers many academic disciplines to both male and female students.[3] The historical narrative of higher education in the Arab world is marked by intellectual exchange, cultural diffusion, and academic excellence.[4] From Islamic Golden Age civilization's pioneering educational institutions, which preserved and expanded knowledge, to modern establishments influenced by colonial legacies and nationalist movements, education has been a cornerstone of societal progress and Arab identity formation.[5] Al-Azhar aside, contemporary higher education in the Arab world is often traced back to colonial and missionary universities established by Europe and the United States in the early nineteenth century. These institutions were few in number, and access was limited to upper-class individuals living in major cities.[6]
Higher education in the region has grown dramatically and has experienced many changes, since its beginnings in the colonial period, and especially since the middle of the twentieth century. In the 21st century, the Arab world's higher education sector faces numerous challenges amid opportunities brought by globalization and technological advancement.[7] Quality assurance, accessibility, relevance, and brain drain are key concerns, prompting stakeholders to engage in dialogue and implement measures for improvement.[8] Though significant differences exist between higher education sectors in each country of the Arab world, some general trends are evident, including navigating the forces of globalization and attempts to increase access and gender equality.[9] Despite significant changes, Arab universities continue to receive relatively poor evaluations from the major global university-ranking systems.
Contemporary history
Until the middle of the twentieth century, ten universities existed in the region, including the American University of Beirut (then called Syrian Protestant College), Université Saint Joseph in Beirut, Cairo University (then called the Egyptian University), University of Algeria, and University of Damascus (then called Syrian University). With the decline of official European colonialism and the independence of Arab countries after WWII, higher education institutions and student enrollment quickly multiplied. While pre-independence institutions were primarily private and foreign-operated, post-independence universities were largely public, state-run institutions. During this period a clear hierarchy among academic disciplines was developed; students with higher grades in secondary school were admitted into the science faculties, while "weaker" students were placed into social sciences, humanities, and Islamic studies.[6]
Instability, globalization, and a general economic downturn in many Arab countries led to new reformist trends in higher education beginning in the 1980s and continuing today. The various reform movements are debated among the various stakeholders (governments, local and foreign institutions, students, citizens), and take on different characteristics in each Arab country. These (not always successful) reforms and trends include increasing privatization, calls for greater access, improving the capability of universities to meet the demands of society, matching educational "outputs" with labor market needs, and negotiating a competitive global education market.[10]
There has been tremendous growth in higher education in the Arab world since the last years of the twentieth century. Student enrollment has jumped from roughly 3 million students in 1998/99 to about 7.5 million students in 2007/08, while the number of universities has grown almost three-fold in the same time period. Higher education in the region has also trended toward increased privatization, though considerable differences occur between countries; Bahrain, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, and the UAE have the highest percentage of students enrolled in private universities (above 50 percent), while Iraq, Libya, Morocco, and Sudan have the lowest percentage of enrollment in private universities (20 percent or less).[10]
In universities today, Islamic studies, social sciences, and the humanities are typically taught in Arabic, while "hard" sciences, technology, and medicine are usually taught in English or French (based on previous colonial rulers). Instruction in Arabic is almost exclusively carried out in Modern Standard Arabic, as opposed to the various colloquial dialects. Some countries have proposed – and to various degrees, enacted – policies to increase the amount of instruction in Arabic. This so-called "Arabization" of higher education is a highly contested issue that is infused with a variety of political and cultural debates in different Arab countries.[6]
Globalization
As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, education has been identified by many as the essential means of preparing citizens to compete in a "knowledge-based" global economy.[11] In higher education, globalization and rising inter-connectivity is manifested in a variety of trends, such as a growing number of students who receive degrees from universities outside their country of origin,[12] the increasing number of students, especially from the U.S., who participate in "study abroad" programs,[13] the emergence of international "branch" campuses, the presence of international faculty, and global higher education ranking systems. Globalization strategies worldwide have led to an increasingly homogenized higher education sector, as governments and institutions seek to meet global standards.[14] Furthermore, some scholars have argued that increasing globalization has actually led to a contemporary form of imperialism, in which economic and cultural norms and discourses are imposed by dominant nations on weaker nations.[15][16]
In recent years, member states of the World Trade Organization (WTO) have been debating the application of the General Agreement on Trades in Services (GATS) to the field of higher education. This free-trade policy affects the status of non-national education providers, including the recognition of degrees earned from such institutions, and has implications on access to and quality of education, economic development and innovation. Arab members of the WTO have been hesitant to negotiate trade agreements related to GATS and the free trade of educational services (though several Arab countries allow foreign institutions to operate within their borders). Among the concerns shared by opponents of the free trade of education is the possibility that GATS will marginalize or eliminate national universities that cannot compete financially with trans-national institutions; that the rise of non-national institutions will erode the native cultural aspects of education; and that a free-trade educational environment would reduce access to higher education and become an "elitist system." Proponents of GATS, meanwhile, argue that the free-trade policy will lead to increased efficiency, improved educational programs, and lower costs for students.[17]