Management of cerebral palsy
Over time, the approach to cerebral palsy management has shifted away from narrow attempts to fix individual physical problems – such as spasticity in a particular limb – to making such treatments part of a larger goal of maximizing the person's independence and community engagement.[1]: 886 Much of childhood therapy is aimed at improving gait and walking. Approximately 60% of people with CP are able to walk independently or with aids at adulthood.[2] However, the evidence base for the effectiveness of intervention programs reflecting the philosophy of independence has not yet caught up: effective interventions for body structures and functions have a strong evidence base, but evidence is lacking for effective interventions targeted toward participation, environment, or personal factors.[1] There is also no good evidence to show that an intervention that is effective at the body-specific level will result in an improvement at the activity level, or vice versa.[1] Although such cross-over benefit might happen, not enough high-quality studies have been done to demonstrate it.[1]
Because cerebral palsy has "varying severity and complexity" across the lifespan,
Various forms of therapy are available to people living with cerebral palsy as well as caregivers and parents. Treatment may include one or more of the following: physical therapy; occupational therapy; speech therapy; water therapy; drugs to control
Lifestyle
Function gait training in children and young adults with cerebral palsy improves their ability to walk.[17] There is evidence that antigravity treadmill training may improve the gait and balance of those children with diplegic cerebral palsy, it may also reduce risk of falls in these children.[18][non-primary source needed]
Hippo therapy, or therapeutic horseback riding, is a physical therapy treatment strategy that uses equine movement. Evidence suggests that those with CP can benefit from symmetry of trunk movement. It is common for horses to sway, so those on them constantly have to adjust their posture. The symmetric, rhythmic, and consistent input that horseback riding provides helps with postural improvement. During horseback riding, a locomotor impulse is sent up the back of the horse. This impulse is then interpreted by the riders body, and it allows for regulation of mediolateral and anteroposterior postural sway, adaptation to new environments, anticipatory and feedback postural control and better use of multi sensory posture and movement related inputs (Keon et al., 2011).[19][non-primary source needed]
A normal vaccination schedule should be adhered to, as preventable diseases may take away energy that a person with CP would normally use in day-to-day life.[20]
Therapy
Biofeedback is a therapy in which people learn how to control their affected muscles. Biofeedback therapy has been found to significantly improve gait in children with cerebral palsy.[25] Mirror therapy has been used to improve hand function and was found to be "generally effective in enhancing muscle strength, motor speed, muscle activity, and the accuracy of both hands".[26] Second-generation mirror therapy, which includes the use of robotics or virtual reality, has been developed since the 2000s, however the evidence supporting this is of low quality.[27]
Gait analysis is often used to describe gait abnormalities in children.[29] Gait training has been shown to improve walking speed in children and young adults with cerebral palsy.[17]
Occupational therapy helps adults and children maximise their function, adapt to their limitations and live as independently as possible.[30][31] A family-centred philosophy is used with children who have CP. Occupational therapists work closely with families in order to address their concerns and priorities for their child.[32] Family-centered care is a paradigm that is often used with families with a child with CP. A review of how parents facilitate their child's participation found that parents typically "enable and support performance of meaningful activities" and "enable, change and use the environment", but that there is little written on parents' needs.[33]
CP commonly causes hemiplegia.[34] Those with hemiplegia have limited use of the limbs on one side of the body, and have normal use of the limbs on the other side.[34] People with hemiplegia often adapt by ignoring the limited limbs, and performing nearly all activities with the unaffected limbs, which can lead to increased problems with muscle tone, motor control and range of motion.[34] An emerging technique called constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT) is designed to address this.[34] In CIMT, the unaffected limbs are constrained, forcing the individual to learn to use the affected limbs.[34] CIMT promotes increased motor function due to structural plasticity in the brain.[35] As of 2007[update] there was limited, preliminary evidence that CIMT is effective, but more study is needed before it can be recommended with confidence.[34] CIMT, modified CIMT, and forced use are three movement therapies that have been examined.[34] CIMT is defined as "restraint of the unaffected upper limb ..., with more than three hours of therapy per day ... and is provided for at least two consecutive weeks".[34] Children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy often have sensory impairments as well as motor deficits. CIMT has been shown to be an effective OT intervention to improve proprioception and sensory processing.[36] CIMT has also been found to improve postural symmetry during functional tasks in individuals with CP.[37]
Modified CIMT (mCIMT) is defined as "restraint of the unaffected upper limb and less than three hours per day of therapy provided to the affected limb".[34] Forced use is when "restraint of the unaffected upper limb is applied but no additional treatment of the affected upper limb is provided".[34] A review concluded that there is a positive trend favoring all three aforementioned therapies.[34]
A comparison of bimanual training (BIT) and CIMT found that there was no significant difference between the two in terms of effects. However, bimanual training may be more able to be integrated into a child's daily life, because the goals in bimanual training are more functional. CIMT has some advantages, such as therapists being able to solely focus on the affected arm, and the child having no choice but to use the affected arm in their activities of daily life as their unaffected arm is constrained. In bimanual training, the child may continue to use the unaffected arm to compensate if their therapist or parent does not remind them to use both hands.[38]
However, there is only some benefit from therapy. Treatment is usually symptomatic and focuses on helping the person to develop as many motor skills as possible or to learn how to compensate for the lack of them. Nonspeaking people with CP are often successful availing themselves of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC).[39]
Therapeutic tests for assessing
Certain countries practice intensive physical therapy, but obtaining reliable data on its medium and long-term effectiveness is challenging.[41]
Assistive technology
Assistive technology is commonly used to promote the independence of people with disabilities. Commonly used technologies for people with cerebral palsy can include patient lifts, electric wheelchairs, orthotics, seating systems, mealtime aids (such as large-handled cutlery and slip-resistant mats), mobility aids, standing frames, non-motorised wheelchairs, augmentative and alternative communication and speech-generating devices.[42] Scope has identified 3D printing as an area of promise in being able to print customised orthotics on-demand.[43]
Children with CP have difficulties with mobility and posture. Occupational therapists often assess and prescribe seating equipment and wheelchairs. An appropriate wheelchair will stabilize the body so the child can use their arms for other activities. Wheelchairs therefore enhance independence.[52][53][51]
Accessible housing may assist some people with cerebral palsy, particularly wheelchair users.[54]
Assistive technologies used during sleep to position the body to prevent painful hip migration are called 'sleep positioning systems'. Studies on their effectiveness are of poor quality.[55]
Medication
Various oral and injectable medication have been used to treat cerebral palsy and its associated comorbid conditions.[56] They include botulinum toxin, benzodiazepines, baclofen, dantrolene, tizanidine, cyclobenzaprine, and phenol.[57]
Drooling is often treated with botulinum toxin A,
Oral baclofen or diazepam is used to reduce spasticity which results in pain, muscle spasms or functional disability. Baclofen is used for a long-term effect and works at the spinal level. Diazepam is fast-acting. Baclofen may also be administerd
Trihexyphenidyl is often prescribed for dystonia.[57] However, a 2018 Cochrane review (one study met inclusion criteria) on the use of trihexyphenidyl for dystonia found insufficient evidence of its effectiveness.[69]
Sometimes, medication used to manage physical aspects of CP can have effects on the person's mental health, or medications used to manage mental health can affect motor function.[70]
Epilepsy that co-occurs with cerebral palsy is often drug-resistant.[71]
Orthopaedic surgery
Deformities in cerebral palsy children are inherently known for being Multiplane i.e. occurring in more than one plane such as transverse plane through which rotation occurs and sagittal plane through which flexion/extension of joint occurs. Furthermore, deformities in cerebral palsy children are characteristically multilevel i.e. occurring at simultaneously at more than one joint. This adds to the complexity of orthopedic management of cerebral palsy children. Thus, multilevel orthopedic surgery is the mainstay of orthopedic management. Multilevel orthopedic surgery may include soft tissue as tendon lengthening or transfer and/or bony surgery as corrective bone osteotomies. Multilevel orthopedic surgery is usually performed in one anesthetic sitting. This allows for the institution of one postoperative rehabilitation protocol and reduces hospital admission rates.[72][73] Orthopaedic surgery is widely used to correct fixed deformities and improve the functional capacity and gait pattern of children with CP. Dynamic deformities such as ankle
Orthopaedic surgery usually involves one or a combination of:
- Orthopaedic surgery as mentioned above involves releasing tight muscles and fixed joint contractures, and corrective osteotomies conducted basically to restore sagittal and rotational malalignment of bones. Orthopedic surgery is most often performed on the hips, knees, hamstrings, and ankles. For example, hip adductor release, musculotendinous lengthening for equinus gait, femoral derotational osteotomy, and knee extension osteotomy are commonly practiced.[74][76][75] Less commonly, this surgery may be used for people with stiffness of their elbows, wrists, hands, and fingers.[78]
Other surgeries
- The insertion of a baclofen pump usually during the stages while a person is a young adult. This is usually placed in the left abdomen. It is a pump that is connected to the spinal cord, whereby it releases doses of baclofen to alleviate continuous muscle flexion. Baclofen is a muscle relaxant and is often given by mouth to people to help counter the effects of spasticity, although this has the side effect of sedating the individual.[68] The pump can be adjusted if muscle tone is worse at certain times of the day or night. The baclofen pump is most appropriate for individuals with chronic, severe stiffness or uncontrolled muscle movement throughout the body.[79] There is a small amount of evidence that baclofen pumps are effective in the short term.[68]
- Cutting nerves on the limbs most affected by movements and spasms. This procedure, called a rhizotomy ("rhizo" meaning root and "tomy" meaning "a cutting of" from the Greek suffix tomia), reduces spasms and allows more flexibility and control of the affected limbs and joints.[80][81]
- Tracheotomy[82]
- Dental surgery[82]
- Diagnostic endoscopy[82]
- Nissen fundoplication[82]
Other surgical procedures are available to try to help with other problems. Those who have serious difficulties with eating may undergo a procedure called a gastrostomy: a hole is cut through the belly skin and into the stomach to allow for a feeding tube.[83] There is no good evidence about the effectiveness or safety of gastrostomy.[83] Gastrostomies are associated with a lower life expectancy, this is probably due to underlying problems with swallowing rather than the procedure itself.[5]
Others
Whole-body vibration might improve speed, gross motor function and femur bone density in children with cerebral palsy.[84]
Aquatic therapy or hydrotherapy are commonly used therapies for children with CP, but evidence for their effectiveness is mixed.[85] Potential benefits of aquatic therapy is that children might find it more interesting than exercising on land, and they can try different kinds of movement such as jumping or skipping with less impact on their joints. While aquatic exercise is feasible and has low risk of adverse effects, the dose required to make a difference to gross motor skills is unclear.[86]
Hip surveillance is the term for monitoring a child with CP who is at risk of
Music therapy has been used in CP to motivate or relax children, or used as auditory feedback. Playing percussion instruments has been used as part of groupwork in therapy. Piano lessons may be beneficial in CP rehabilitation, however more research is needed.[90]
While there is great interest in using video game rehabilitation with children with cerebral palsy, it is difficult to compare outcomes between studies, and therefore to reach evidence-based conclusions on its effectiveness.[91] Because video gaming is popular, it may help children's motivation to continue with the therapy.[92] There is moderate evidence for improvements with balance and motor skills in children and teens, but it is not recommended as an effective therapy.[23]
Yoga has been used by carers as part of the physical therapies for children to assist in developing basic motor skills.[93]
There is evidence around using multi-modal and physical interventions to improve general cognitive functioning in people with CP.[94]
Alternative therapy
There has not been much research into the use of
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT), in which pressurised
Patterning is a controversial form of alternative therapy for people with CP. The method is promoted by The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential (IAHP), a Philadelphia nonprofit organisation, but has been criticised by the American Academy of Pediatrics.[99]
Conductive education (CE) was developed in Hungary from 1945 based on the work of András Pető. It is a unified system of rehabilitation for people with neurological disorders including cerebral palsy, Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis, amongst other conditions. It is theorised to improve mobility, self-esteem, stamina and independence as well as daily living skills and social skills. The conductor is the professional who delivers CE in partnership with parents and children. Skills learned during CE should be applied to everyday life and can help to develop age-appropriate cognitive, social and emotional skills. It is available at specialised centres.[citation needed]
Reviews disagree on the usefulness of
Occupational therapists may use neuro-developmental techniques to promote normal movement and posture and to inhibit abnormal movement and posture.[51] Specific techniques include joint compression and stretching to provide sensory-motor input and to guide motor output.[51] Neurodevelopmental treatment, despite being commonly used as a therapy for children with CP, has not been found to have strong evidence for its use.[102] It has been suggested that rhythmic auditory stimulation may be more effective in improving gait than NDT techniques.[103]
Occupational therapy
This section needs to be updated.(February 2017) |
Effect of sensory and perceptual impairments
Children with CP may experience decreased sensation or a limited understanding of how the brain interprets what it sees. Occupational therapists may plan and implement sensory-perceptual-motor (SPM) training for children with CP who have sensory impairments so that they learn to take in, understand, plan and produce organized behaviour.[106] The SPM training improves the daily, functional abilities of people with CP.[106] Occupational therapists may also use verbal instructions and supplementary visual input, such as visual cues, to help children with CP learn and carry out activities.
For children with CP with limited movement and sensation, the risk of
Effect of cognitive and perceptual impairments
OT can address cognitive and perceptual disabilities, especially of the visual-motor area.[53] For children with CP who have difficulty remembering the order and organization of self-care tasks in the morning, an occupational therapist can construct a morning routine schedule with reminders. An occupational therapist may analyze the steps involved in a task to break down an activity into simpler tasks. For example, dressing can be broken down into smaller, manageable steps. This can be done by having a caregiver lay out the clothing in order so the child knows what needs to be put on first.[51]
Effect of motor impairments
The effect of motor impairments is significant for children with CP because it affects the ability to walk, propel a wheelchair, maintain hygiene, access the community and interact with other people. Occupational therapists address motor impairments in a variety of ways and makes use of various techniques, depending on the child's needs and goals.[51] The occupational therapist may help the child with gross motor rehabilitation, or whole body and limb movements, through repetitive activities.[108][109] If the child has muscle weakness, progressive resistance exercises can improve muscular strength and endurance.[51] Fine motor rehabilitation, or small, specific movements, such as threading the eye of a needle, can be implemented to improve finger movement and control.[49]
For children with difficulties speaking, an occupational therapist may liaise with a speech therapist, carry out assessments, provide education and prescribe adaptive equipment. Adaptive equipment may include picture boards to help with communication and computers that respond to voice.[51]
Occupational therapists can help the child promote use of a neglected arm through techniques such as constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT), which forces use of the unused arm by placing the other arm in a sling, cast or oversized mitt.[110]
Another OT technique that may be used is neuromuscular facilitation techniques, which involves physically moving and stretching the muscles to improve function so that the child can participate in activities.[104][105]
OT role with factors influencing participation
Barriers to participation for children with CP include difficulty accessing the community. This includes difficulty accessing buildings and using transportation.[113][114] Occupational therapists may work with developers to ensure new homes are accessible to all people.[115][116] Also, occupational therapists often help people apply for government and non-profit funding to provide assistive devices, such as special computer programs or wheelchairs, to children with CP.[117] Availability of transportation services can be limited for children with CP because of many factors, such as difficulties fitting wheelchairs into vehicles and dependency on public transit schedules. Therefore, the occupational therapists may also be involved in education and referral regarding accessible vehicles and funding.[114][118]
Occupational therapists address the community and environmental factors that affect participation in leisure activities by educating children with CP, their families, and others on available options and adaptive ways to engage in leisure activities of interest.[116] Prejudice of others toward disability can also be a barrier to participation for children with CP with respect to leisure activities.[114] One way occupational therapists can address this barrier is to teach the child to educate others on CP – thus reducing stigma and enhancing participation.[117] Finally, occupational therapists take children's preferences into consideration in terms of cosmetic appearance when prescribing or fabricating adaptive equipment and splints. This is important as appearance may affect the child's compliance with assistive devices, as well as their self-confidence, which may impact participation. In addition to providing dedicated occupational therapy to such children, some non-profit organizations viz. Spastic Society of Gurgaon are providing comprehensive assistance which includes designing of child specific assisting devices to such children for making their lives more meaningful by enabling them to be self-reliant to the best possible extent.[citation needed]
Research
Most research into cerebral palsy covers children and adolescents.
Defining functional independence
Despite the transition in philosophy from treating individual body problems to treating the person with CP holistically, it has remained difficult to define what functional independence is. The Functional Independence Measure is sometimes used to describe people with CP.[122]
See also
- Autism therapies
- Disease management (health)
- Management of depression
- Neuropsychiatry
- Neurorehabilitation
- Salutogenesis
- Quality of life (healthcare)
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Further reading
- Boyd RN, Mitchell LE, James ST, Ziviani J, Sakzewski L, Smith A, et al. (2013). "Move it to improve it (Mitii): study protocol of a randomised controlled trial of a novel web-based multimodal training program for children and adolescents with cerebral palsy". BMJ Open. 3 (4): e002853. PMID 23578686.
- Dodd KJ, Imms C, Taylor NF, eds. (2010). Physiotherapy and occupational therapy for people with cerebral palsy: a problem-based approach to assessment and management. London: Mac Keith Press. ISBN 978-1-908316-11-0.
External links
- Management of cerebral palsy at Curlie