History of tennis: Difference between revisions
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Most historians believe that [[tennis]] originated in the monastic cloisters in northern France in the 12th century, but the ball was then struck with the palm of the hand hence the name [[jeu de paume]] ("game of the palm").<ref>{{cite book|last=Gillmeister|first=Heiner|title=Tennis : A Cultural History|year=1998|publisher=New York University Press|location=Washington Square, N.Y.|isbn=081473121X|page=117}}</ref> It was not until the 16th century that [[Racket (sports equipment)|rackets]] came into use, and the game began to be called "tennis." It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. [[Henry VIII of England]] was a big fan of this game, which historians now refer to as [[real tennis]].<ref>Crego, Robert. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=XCl1c2yy5ooC&pg=PA115&dq=%22real+tennis%22+and+tenez&hl=en&ei=GrD8S8GtIcT68Abk173KBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22real%20tennis%22%20and%20tenez&f=false Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries]'', page 115 (2003).</ref> |
Most historians believe that [[tennis]] originated in the monastic cloisters in northern France in the 12th century, but the ball was then struck with the palm of the hand hence the name [[jeu de paume]] ("game of the palm").<ref>{{cite book|last=Gillmeister|first=Heiner|title=Tennis : A Cultural History|year=1998|publisher=New York University Press|location=Washington Square, N.Y.|isbn=081473121X|page=117}}</ref> It was not until the 16th century that [[Racket (sports equipment)|rackets]] came into use, and the game began to be called "tennis." It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. [[Henry VIII of England]] was a big fan of this game, which historians now refer to as [[real tennis]].<ref>Crego, Robert. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=XCl1c2yy5ooC&pg=PA115&dq=%22real+tennis%22+and+tenez&hl=en&ei=GrD8S8GtIcT68Abk173KBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22real%20tennis%22%20and%20tenez&f=false Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries]'', page 115 (2003).</ref> |
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The [[Davis Cup]], an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.daviscup.com/en/organisation/davis-cup-history.aspx|title=Davis Cup History|publisher=ITF}}</ref> The analogous competition for women's national teams, the [[Fed Cup]], was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the [[International Tennis Federation]], also known as the ITF. |
The [[Davis Cup]], an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.daviscup.com/en/organisation/davis-cup-history.aspx|title=Davis Cup History|publisher=ITF}}</ref> The analogous competition for women's national teams, the [[Fed Cup]], was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the [[International Tennis Federation]], also known as the ITF. |
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In 1926, promoter [[C. C. Pyle|C.C. Pyle]] created the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.<ref name=TS1/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tennisserver.com/lines/lines_01_03_01.html|title=History of the Pro Tennis Wars Chapter 2, part 1 1927–1928|accessdate=2007-05-29}}</ref> The most notable of these early professionals were the American [[Vinnie Richards]] and the Frenchwoman [[Suzanne Lenglen]].<ref name=TS1/><ref name="Open Minded">[http://www.cigaraficionado.com/Cigar/CA_Archives/CA_Show_Article/0,2322,519,00.html Open Minded] – Bruce Goldman</ref> Once a player ''turned pro'' he or she could not compete in the major (amateur) tournaments.<ref name=TS1/> |
In 1926, promoter [[C. C. Pyle|C.C. Pyle]] created the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.<ref name=TS1/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tennisserver.com/lines/lines_01_03_01.html|title=History of the Pro Tennis Wars Chapter 2, part 1 1927–1928|accessdate=2007-05-29}}</ref> The most notable of these early professionals were the American [[Vinnie Richards]] and the Frenchwoman [[Suzanne Lenglen]].<ref name=TS1/><ref name="Open Minded">[http://www.cigaraficionado.com/Cigar/CA_Archives/CA_Show_Article/0,2322,519,00.html Open Minded] – Bruce Goldman</ref> Once a player ''turned pro'' he or she could not compete in the major (amateur) tournaments.<ref name=TS1/> |
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===The Fed Cup=== |
===The Fed Cup=== |
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{{Main|Fed Cup}} |
{{Main|Fed Cup}} |
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The idea of a Davis Cup-style tournament for national women's teams is surprisingly old—it was first proposed in 1919 by [[Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman]]. After she was turned down, she donated a trophy in 1923 that would be known as the [[Wightman Cup]], awarded in an annual match between the two strongest women's tennis nations of the time, the United States and Great Britain. |
The idea of a Davis Cup-style tournament for national women's teams is surprisingly old—it was first proposed in 1919 by [[Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman]]. After she was turned down, she donated a trophy in 1923 that would be known as the [[Wightman Cup]], awarded in an annual match between the two strongest women's tennis nations of the time, the United States and Great Britain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fedcup.com/en/organisation/fed-cup-history.aspx |title=Fed Cup History |publisher=[[International Tennis Federation]] (ITF) }} </ref> |
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Wightman's original idea for a worldwide women's team tournament would bear fruit more than 40 years later in 1962, when [[Nell Hall Hopman|Nell Hopman]] persuaded the ITF to begin sponsoring such an event. The first Federation Cup was played in [[1963 Federation Cup (tennis)|1963]] as part of the ITF's 50th anniversary celebrations; it involved 16 countries and was played over one week. By the 1990s, over 70 nations competed each year, and regional qualifiers were introduced in [[1992 Federation Cup (tennis)|1992]]. In [[1995 Fed Cup|1995]], the ITF introduced a new Davis Cup-style format for the competition and rechristened it the Fed Cup. |
Wightman's original idea for a worldwide women's team tournament would bear fruit more than 40 years later in 1962, when [[Nell Hall Hopman|Nell Hopman]] persuaded the ITF to begin sponsoring such an event. The first Federation Cup was played in [[1963 Federation Cup (tennis)|1963]] as part of the ITF's 50th anniversary celebrations; it involved 16 countries and was played over one week. By the 1990s, over 70 nations competed each year, and regional qualifiers were introduced in [[1992 Federation Cup (tennis)|1992]]. In [[1995 Fed Cup|1995]], the ITF introduced a new Davis Cup-style format for the competition and rechristened it the Fed Cup. |
Revision as of 13:29, 27 May 2015
Most historians believe that
The
In 1926, promoter
In 1968, commercial pressures and rumors of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the
Etymology
The word "Tennis" came into use in English in the mid-13th century from Old French, via the Anglo-Norman term Tenez, which can be translated as "hold!", "receive!" or "take!". A call from the server to his opponent indicating that he is about to serve.[11] The first known appearance of the word in English literature is by poet John Gower in his poem titled 'In Praise of Peace' dedicated to King Henry IV and composed in 1400; "Of the tenetz to winne or lese a chase, Mai no lif wite er that the bal be ronne". (Whether a chase is won or lost at tennis, Nobody can know until the ball is run).[a][13][14][15][16]
Royal origins
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Real-tennis-rackets-balls.jpg/170px-Real-tennis-rackets-balls.jpg)
Tennis is mentioned in literature as far back as the Middle Ages. In
Real tennis
The Medieval form of tennis is termed as real tennis. Real tennis evolved over three centuries, from an earlier ball game played around the 12th century in France which involved hitting a ball with a bare hand and later with a glove. By the 16th century, the glove had become a racquet, the game had moved to an enclosed playing area, and the rules had stabilized. Real tennis spread in popularity throughout royalty in Europe, reaching its peak in the 16th century.
In 1437 at the Blackfriars, Perth, the playing of tennis indirectly led to the death of King James I of Scotland, when the drain outlet, through which he hoped to escape assassins, had been blocked to prevent the loss of tennis balls.[19] James was trapped and killed.[20]
Francis I of France (1515–47) was an enthusiastic player and promoter of real tennis, building courts and encouraging play among the courtiers and commoners. His successor Henry II (1547–59) was also an excellent player and continued the royal French tradition. In 1555 an Italian priest, Antonio Scaino da Salothe, wrote the first known book about tennis, Trattato del Giuoco della Palla. Two French kings died from tennis related episodes—Louis X of a severe chill after playing and Charles VIII after hitting his head during a game.[21] King Charles IX granted a constitution to the Corporation of Tennis Professionals in 1571, creating the first pro tennis 'tour', establishing three professional levels: apprentice, associate, and master. A professional named Forbet wrote and published the first codification of the rules in 1599.[22]
Royal interest in England began with
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Lawn_Tennis_Court_1874.jpg/170px-Lawn_Tennis_Court_1874.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Lawn_Tennis_rule_book_cover%2C_1874.jpg/170px-Lawn_Tennis_rule_book_cover%2C_1874.jpg)
Real tennis is mentioned in literature by
The game thrived among the 17th-century nobility in France, Spain, Italy, and in the
Birth of lawn tennis
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tennis_birthplace_Edgbaston.jpg/170px-Tennis_birthplace_Edgbaston.jpg)
The modern sport is tied to two separate inventions.
Between 1859 and 1865, in
In December 1873, Major Walter Clopton Wingfield designed and patented a similar game—which he called Sphairistikè (Greek: σφάίρίστική, from ancient Greek meaning "skill at playing at ball"), and was soon known simply as "sticky"—for the amusement of his guests at a garden party on his estate of Nantclwyd, in Llanelidan, Wales.[29][30] He likely based his game on the evolving sport of outdoor tennis including real tennis. Much of modern tennis terminology also derives from this period, as Wingfield borrowed both the name and much of the French vocabulary of real tennis and applied them to his new game.[31] He patented the game [32] in 1874 with an eight-page rule book titled "Sphairistike or Lawn Tennis",[33] but he failed to succeed in enforcing his patent.[34] In his version the game was played on an hour-glass shaped court and the net was higher (4 feet 8 inches). The service had to be made from a diamond-shaped box at one end only and the service had to bounce beyond the service line instead of in front of it. He adopted the Rackets-based system of scoring where games consisted of 15 points (called 'aces').[35]
Mary Ewing Outerbridge played the game in Bermuda at "Clermont", a house with a spacious lawn in Paget parish.[36] In 1874 Mary returned from Bermuda aboard the ship "S.S. Canima" and introduced lawn tennis to the United States. [37] She set up the first tennis court in the United States on the grounds of the Staten Island Cricket and Baseball Club, which was near where the Staten Island Ferry Terminal is today. [38] The club was founded on or about March 22, 1872. She played the first tennis game in the US against her sister Laura in Staten Island, New York, on an hourglass-shaped court. [39]
Terminology
Wingfield borrowed both the name and much of the French vocabulary of real tennis:
- Tennis comes from the French tenez, the plural imperative form of the verb tenir, to hold, meaning "hold!", "receive!" or "take!", an interjection used as a call from the server to his opponent to indicate that he is about to serve.[40]
- Racket derives from the Arabic rakhat, meaning the palm of the hand.[41]
- Deuce comes from à deux le jeu, meaning "to both is the game" (that is, the two players have equal scores).[42]
- The origin of the use of Love for zero is disputed. It is possible that it derives from "l'oeuf", the French word for "egg", representing the shape of a zero.[43][44] Another possibility is that it derives from the Dutch expression "iets voor lof doen", which means to do something for praise, implying no monetary stakes.[45]
- The reason for the numbering of scores being "15", "30" and "40" is unknown. Historical sources suggest the system was originally 15, 30, 45 with the 45 simplified to 40 over time. Common theories are that it originated from the quarters of a clock, or from gambling stakes.[42]
Tournaments and tours
The Four Majors
The four Majors or
1877: Wimbledon
Name
1877: The Championships
Surface
1877: Grass
Venue change
1877: Worple Road, Wimbledon
1922: Church Road, Wimbledon
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Wimbledon.svg/140px-Wimbledon.svg.png)
1881: U.S. Open
Tennis was first played in the U.S. at the home of Mary Ewing Outerbridge at the Staten Island Cricket Club in New Brighton Staten Island, New York in 1874.[51] In 1881, the desire to play tennis competitively led to the establishment of tennis clubs.[4]
The exact location of the club was under what is now the Staten Island Ferry terminal. The first American National tournament in 1880 was played there. An Englishman named O.E Woodhouse won the singles match. There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in NY. On May 21, 1881, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) was formed to standardize the rules and organize competitions.[52]
The US National Men's Singles Championship, now the US Open, was first held in 1881 at Newport, Rhode Island.[53] The U.S. National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 in Philadelphia.[54]
The tournament was made officially one of the tennis 'Majors' from 1924 by the ILTF (though regarded unofficially as such before that time)
Name change
1881: U.S. National Championship
1968: U.S. Open
Template:Multicol-break
Surface change
1881: Grass
1975:
1978:
Venue change (men's championship)
1881: Newport
1915: Forest Hills
1921:
1924: Forest Hills
1978:
1891/1925: French Open
Tennis was predominantly a sport of the English-speaking world, dominated by Great Britain and the United States.
Name change
1891: Championnat de France
1925: Championnats Internationaux de France
1928: Tournoi de Roland Garros
Template:Multicol-break
Surface change
1891: Clay and Sand
1909: Clay
Template:Multicol-break
Venue change
1891-1908: shared by Tennis Club de Paris)/Ile de Puteaux, Paris/Racing Club de France
1909: Societe Athletique de la Villa Primrose, Bordeaux
1910: Racing Club de France, Paris
1925: Stade Français, Paris
1926: Racing Club de France, Paris
1927: Stade Français, Paris
1928: Stade Roland Garros, Paris
Template:Multicol-break
1905: Australian Open
The Australian Open was first played in 1905 as The Australasian (Australia and New Zealand) Championships. Because of its geographic remoteness, historically, the event did not gain attendance from the top tennis players. It became one of the major tennis tournaments starting in 1924 (designated by the ILTF). In 1927, because of New Zealand tennis authorities releasing their commitments to the tournament, it became known as the Australian Championships. For most of the 1970s and the early 1980s, the event lacked participation from top ranked tennis professionals. Since its move to Melbourne Park in 1988, the Australian Open has gained the popularity of the other three Grand Slams. Template:Multicol
Name change
1905: Australasian Championships
1927: Australian Championships
1969: Australian Open
Template:Multicol-break
Surface change
1905: Grass
1988:
2008:
Venue change
1905: Melbourne
1906 -:
1972: Kooyong
1988: Melbourne Park Template:Multicol-break
The Davis Cup
In 1898,
The tournament was initially known as the International Lawn Tennis Challenge. It was renamed the Davis Cup following the death of Dwight Davis in 1945. The tournament has vastly expanded and, on its 100th anniversary in 1999, 130 nations competed.
International Tennis Federation
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/1896_Olympic_tennis.jpg/240px-1896_Olympic_tennis.jpg)
1913 also saw twelve national tennis associations agree at a Paris conference to form the
That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts by the then ITF President Philippe Chatrier, ITF General Secretary David Gray and ITF Vice President Pablo Llorens, and support from IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full medal sport at Seoul in 1988.
The Fed Cup
The idea of a Davis Cup-style tournament for national women's teams is surprisingly old—it was first proposed in 1919 by Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman. After she was turned down, she donated a trophy in 1923 that would be known as the Wightman Cup, awarded in an annual match between the two strongest women's tennis nations of the time, the United States and Great Britain.[60]
Wightman's original idea for a worldwide women's team tournament would bear fruit more than 40 years later in 1962, when Nell Hopman persuaded the ITF to begin sponsoring such an event. The first Federation Cup was played in 1963 as part of the ITF's 50th anniversary celebrations; it involved 16 countries and was played over one week. By the 1990s, over 70 nations competed each year, and regional qualifiers were introduced in 1992. In 1995, the ITF introduced a new Davis Cup-style format for the competition and rechristened it the Fed Cup.
Pro tournaments
The main events of the professional circuit comprised head-to-head competition and by-invitation Pro Championships, which were the precedents for the Grand Slam tournaments before the
The leading professional players were under contract with a professional promoter before the Open Era. For example, popular players like
Pro tours
Most professionals played in separate professional events, mostly on tours in head-to-head competition referred as pro tours.
In 1926, promoter
Pro Championships (Pro Slams)
In addition to head-to-head events several annual professional tournaments were called championship tournaments. The most prestigious was usually the
The Tournament of Champions was held between 1956 and 1959, the 1956 edition taking place in Los Angeles and the 1957, 1958 and 1959 editions taking place at Forest Hills. There was also the Wimbledon Pro tournament held in August 1967, the first tournament where professional tennis players were allowed to play at Wimbledon.
Open Era
The Open Era began in 1968 when the
WCT & NTL
In 1968, a few professionals were independent including
In 1968, the original
Grand Prix circuit
In the first two years of the Open Era, the NTL and WCT promoters began to control the game. To outmaneuver them, Jack Kramer, the 1940s and 1950s best player (and a promoter), conceived the Grand Prix tennis circuit in late 1969. He described it as:
. . . a series of tournaments with a money bonus pool that would be split up on the basis of a cumulative point system. This would encourage the best players to compete regularly in the series, so that they could share in the bonus at the end and qualify for a special championship tournament that would climax the year.[66]
In 1970, not a single contract player showed up for the French Open. The International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF), alarmed by the control of the promoters, approved Kramer's Grand Prix. Twenty seven tournaments including the three Grand Slams, French Open, Wimbledon and US Open were played that year, with Stockholm tournament ending on 1 November. The independent professionals along with a few contract players entered the Grand Prix circuit. The contract players could play the Grand Prix events if they were allowed and had time apart from their own circuit.
Tour rivalries and the origin of the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP)
The first WCT tournaments were held in February 1968 and the first NTL tournaments in March 1969. In spring 1970, the WCT absorbed the NTL. At the end of 1970, a panel of journalists ranked the players, leading the WCT to send invitations to the 32 top men to play the 1971 WCT circuit: among the 32, Ilie Năstase, Stan Smith, Jan Kodeš, Željko Franulović and Clark Graebner stayed independent. In 1971, the WCT ran 20 tournaments and the year-ending WCT Finals. In 1971, the majority of the best players still mainly played the WCT circuit.
The 1971 Australian Open was a WCT competition whereas Roland Garros, Wimbledon and Forest Hills were ILTF Grand Prix events. The conflict between the two groups got so strong in 1971 that Rosewall, Gimeno, Laver, Emerson and some other WCT players boycotted the 1971 US Open, although Newcombe played and lost in the first round to Kodes. Bill Riordan (future manager of Jimmy Connors) complicated matters further with a third professional tour, the U.S. Indoor Circuit.
In 1972, the war between the ILTF and the WCT culminated in the ILTF banning the contract pro players from all ILTF Grand Prix events between January and July, which included the 1972 French Open and 1972 Wimbledon. At the 1972 US Open, all the players attended and agreed to form a player syndicate to protect themselves from the promoters and associations. Thus was born the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) in September 1972.
In 1973, there were four rival pro circuits: the WCT circuit, the Grand Prix circuit, the U.S. Indoor Circuit with Connors and Ilie Năstase and the European Spring Circuit with Năstase as their star. During the year, the ILTF banned Nikola Pilić from 1973 Wimbledon, due to Pilic's alleged refusal to play in Yugoslavia's Davis Cup tie against New Zealand. In retaliation, 81 out of 84 of Pilic's fellow players who were ATP members, boycotted 1973 Wimbledon in response, stating that professional players should have the right of deciding whether to play Davis Cup matches or not. The only ATP players who refused to boycott 1973 Wimbledon were Ilie Năstase, Roger Taylor and Ray Keldie. They were later fined by the ATP for their participation in the tournament.
Between 1974 and 1978, any tennis player who participated in
Integration
In 1978 the Grand Prix and WCT circuits merged. In 1982, the WCT circuit broke away (and created a more complex WCT ranking, similar to the ATP ranking.) The WCT wasn't as successful in the 1980s, leaving the Grand Prix circuit as the main circuit. The Grand Prix's governance was led by the Men's International Professional Tennis Council (MIPTC), later renamed to Men's Tennis Council (MTC). The
The Open Era, the global professional circuit, and television helped tennis spread globally and shed its aristocratic,
ATP Tour
In 1990, the Association of Tennis Professionals, led by
In 2009, the Masters events were renamed the
Women's professional tennis
Women's professional tennis began in 1926 when world number one
In 1970, promoter for the Pacific Southwest Championships in Los Angeles Jack Kramer offered the women only $7,500 in prize money versus the men's total of $50,000. When Kramer refused to match the men's prize money, King and Casals urged a boycott. Gladys Heldman, American publisher of World Tennis magazine, responded with a separate women's tour under the sponsorship of Virginia Slims cigarettes. In 1971–72 the WT Women's Pro Tour offered nearly ten times the prize money of other pro women's tennis events. The tour alienated the USLTA, which initially would not sanction the tour. Giving Virginia Slims the individual events and the USLTA the tour resolved the conflict. In 1973, the U.S. Open made history by offering equal prize money to men and women. Billie Jean King, the most visible advocate for the women's cause, earned over $100,000 in 1971 and 1972.[70] In the famous Battle of the Sexes exhibition match against crafty Bobby Riggs in September 1973, King brought even more media attention to tennis, and to women professionals in all walks of life.
The Women's Tennis Association, formed in 1973, is the principal organizing body of women's professional
From 1984–98, the finals matches of the championship event were best-of-five, uniquely among women's tournaments. In 1999, the finals reverted to best-of-three. The WTA Tour Championships are generally considered to be the women's fifth most prestigious event (after the four Grand Slam tournaments.)
Hall of Fame
In 1954, James Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a non-profit museum in Newport, Rhode Island.[71] The building contains a large collection of memorabilia as well as honoring prominent players and others. Each year, a grass-court tournament takes place on its grounds, as well as an induction ceremony honoring new members.
See also
Notes
References
- ISBN 081473121X.
- ^ Crego, Robert. Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries, page 115 (2003).
- ^ "Davis Cup History". ITF.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Suzanne Lenglen and the First Pro Tour". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ "History of the Pro Tennis Wars Chapter 2, part 1 1927–1928". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ a b Open Minded – Bruce Goldman
- Tennis, professional tournaments before the open era
- ^ a b Jon Henderson (2008-12-10). "Middle-class heroes can lift our game". London: The Observer, theguardian.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-08-02.
it was no longer true that tennis was a middle-class sport
- ^ Kate Magee (2008-07-10). "Max Clifford to help shed tennis' middle-class image". PR Week. Retrieved 2008-08-02.
- ^ The Sugarman. "There are 3 levels of social class in tennis: Upper middle class, middle class and lower middle class". BookieBusters.net. Retrieved 2008-08-02.
- ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
- ISBN 081473121X.
- ISBN 081473121X.
- )
- )
- ^ "John Gower: In Praise of Peace". University of Rochester. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
- ISBN 081473121X.
- ^ Hahn, Thomas(1995). Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales. Medieval Institute Publications
- ^ Roger Morgan, The silver ball of rattray: a note on an early form of tennis, The International Journal of the History of Sport, Vol. 8, Iss. 3, 1991
- ^ McGladdery, The Kings & Queens of Scotland: James I, p. 143
- ISBN 0-394-49940-9.
- ^ The Encyclopedia of Tennis, p. 17
- ^ The Encyclopedia of Tennis, p. 18
- ^ Shakespeare, William (Early 1600s). The Chronicle History of King Henry the Fifth. Act 1, Scene 2
- ^ The Encyclopedia of Tennis, p. 21
- ^ Tyzack, Anna, The True Home of Tennis Country Life, 22 June 2005
- ^ Lawn Tennis and Major T. H. Gem Birmingham Civic Society
- ^ "Leamington Tennis Club". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ E. M. Halliday (June 1971). "Sphairistiké, Anyone?". American Heritage.
- ^ The History of Tennis – Mary Bellis
- ^ Robertson, Max (1974). Encyclopedia of Tennis. The Viking Press. pp. 22–24.
- ^ "23 February 1874 in History". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ "When the Girls Came Out to Play: The Birth of American Sportswear". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ The Beginnings Of Lawn Tennis – University of South Carolina Libraries
- ISBN 9781851243181.
- ^ "Bermudas Place in Tennis History". Blackburne.
{{cite web}}
: C1 control character in|title=
at position 8 (help) - ^ http://www.ictennis.net/bermuda/TheICofBermuda/tabid/845/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/473/Bermudas-Place-in-Tennis-History.aspx
- ^ http://www.statenislandtennisassociation.com/our-history.html
- ^ http://www.statenislandtennisassociation.com/our-history.html
- ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. 1927-06-10. Retrieved 2013-05-15.
- ^ "Tennis from Beijing Olympics 2008". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ a b "The Online Guide to Traditional Games". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ Palmatier, Robert. Speaking of animals: a dictionary of animal metaphors, page 245 (1995).
- ^ Horn, Geoffrey. Rafael Nadal, page 13 (2006).
- ISBN 9789065503794.
- ^ Grand Slam – Australian Open
- ^ "Originality of the phrase "Grand Slam"". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ "History of Tennis". International Tennis Federation. Retrieved 2008-07-28.
- ^ "The Trophies". wimbledon.org. Retrieved 2010-11-12.
- ^ "Roll of Honour". wimbledon.org. Retrieved 2010-11-12.
- ^ "Women In Sport". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ "History of United States Tennis Association". Archived from the original on 2007-10-30. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ "Fact & History of Rhodes Island". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ Leading The Way – BBC Sport
- ^ "Tennis: Britain Misses Out on World Party That Once Roused Fury of the Fuhrer". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ "Davis Cup History". daviscup.com. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "Davis Cup by BNP Paribas". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ History of The Davis Cup. Retrieved 2007-09-10.
- ^ "James Henry Van Alen in the Tennis Hall of Fame". Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ "Fed Cup History". International Tennis Federation (ITF).
- ^ "History of the Pro Tennis Wars Chapter 2, part 1 1927–1928". Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ "Open tennis accepted for Wimbledon". espn.go.com. ESPN. 14 December 1967.
- The Canberra Times (ACT : 1926 - 1995). ACT: National Library of Australia. 19 June 1969. p. 30.
- ^ Henderson, Jon (15 June 2008). "Now I'd choose tennis". The Observer.
'Yes, "open" tennis has come at last and Bournemouth has been entrusted with the task of a world shaking launching,' said the programme notes for the 1968 Hard Court Championships of Great Britain, which brought an end to the sport's segregation of amateur and professional players.
- Fédération Française de Tennis. Archived from the originalon 2008-07-04.
Another significant turning point came in 1968 when the French Internationals became the first Grand Slam tournament to join the "Open"" era.
- ^ THE GAME My 40 Years in Tennis, by Jack Kramer with Frank Deford, pages 275–276
- ^ "History of the West Side Tennis Club". Archived from the original on May 19, 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ "History of USTA". Archived from the original on November 12, 2006. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
- ^ Max Robertson, The Encyclopedia of Tennis, 1974, The Viking Press, New York, ISBN 978-0-670-29408-4, p. 68
- ^ Max Robertson, p. 70
- ^ "International Tennis Hall of Fame Information". Archived from the original on May 18, 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
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