Femininity

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Dave3457 (talk | contribs) at 02:15, 9 July 2011 (Added hidden comment to the lede to inform others of the volatility of the lede.). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Marie-Denise Villers, Young Woman Drawing, 1801, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
This article is about attributes culturally associated with women. For information on female humans, see woman.

Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with

distinct from the simple definition of the biological female sex,[5][6] as women, men, and transgender
people can all exhibit feminine traits.

Traits associated with femininity include a variety of social and cultural factors, and often vary depending on location and context.[7] Behavioral traits that are considered feminine include gentleness, empathy, and sensitivity.[8][9] The counterpart to femininity is masculinity.

History

The historical origin of the English word feminine is from the Latin femina meaning "woman" or "female," and literally meant, "she who suckles".[10]

Anatolian Civilizations

From the Neolithic period to the Bronze Age women were prized for their creative ability to reproduce and were represented as birthing figuriness in almost every prehistoric culture.[11] During the Bronze Age, the birthing figurines diminished drastically and distinct differences emerged in iconography between the male and female. Males were shown with daggers in hunting and warrior scenes, and females were defined simply by their biological attributes. By the Iron Age the roles between masculine and feminine were strongly delineated.[12]

Modern notions of femininity began during the English

womanhood.[14]

Behavior and personality

See also:
Sex and psychology

While the defining characteristics of femininity are not universally identical, some patterns exist.

emotional and less logical than the masculine nature.[15][16][17]

Femininity is sometimes linked with sex and sexual appeal.[18][19] Sexual passiveness, or sexual reception, is sometimes considered feminine while sexual assertiveness and sexual desire is sometime considered masculine behaviors. [19]

Ann Oakley's sex/gender dichotomy had a considerable influence on sociologists defining masculine and feminine behavior as regulated, policed, and reproduced in our society, as well as the power structures relating to the concepts. Some queer theorists and other postmodernists, however, have rejected the sex (biology)/gender (culture) dichotomy as a "dangerous simplification".[4]

An ongoing debate with regards to

sex and psychology is the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behavior is due to socialization versus in-born factors.[1][3] According to Diane F. Halpern, both factors play a role, but the relative importance of each must still be investigated.[20] The nature versus nurture question, for example, is extensively debated and is continually revitalized by new research findings.[3]

In 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Erhardt proposed the neonatal hormone theory, which argued that sexual organs bathe the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the birth of an individual with a male or female brain. This theory, however, remains controversial.[1][21] Later scientific research investigation sex and psychology has shown that gender expectations and stereotype threat affect behavior, and a person's gender identity can develop as early as three years of age. [22][3] Some studies suggest that women tend to perform better on empathy tests than men,[23][24] though others have found no sex differences in empathy.[25][26] Some related studies suggest that empathy performance may be related to the subject's perceived gender identity and gender expectations,[27][21] while other researchers argue that because differences in empathy disappear on tests where it is not clear that empathy is being studied, men and women do not differ in ability, but instead in how empathetic they would like to appear to themselves and others.[28] Simon Baron-Cohen argues that there is a high capacity for empathy in women caused by biological factors,[29] though his studies have been criticized by Cordelia Fine, who argues that there is no evidence for biological behavioral differences.[21] Other researchers, such as Diane F. Halpern, argue that small innate differences are exaggerated socially and culturally to create gender.[30]

Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female anatomical differences.[8] Others, such as Carole Pateman, Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff, argue that the definition of femininity is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a patriarchal social system.[18][31]

In Carl Jung's school of analytical psychology, the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and animus are described by Jung as elements of his theory of the collective unconscious, a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of the male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality: anima; equivalently, in the unconscious of the female it is expressed as a masculine inner personality: animus.[32]

Occupational roles

Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar. Teaching is often considered a feminine occupation.
Main article:
Gender roles

Several stereotypes about women have influenced what occupations are associated with femininity. These stereotypes include that women have a caring nature, have skill at household-related work, have greater manual dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and have a more attractive physical appearance. Occupational roles associated with these stereotypes include: midwife, teacher, accountant, data entry clerk, cashier, salesperson, receptionist, housekeeper, cook, maid, social worker, and nurse.[33]

Early computer programmers were women. This has reversed in recent decades, however, with programming being perceived as a masculine occupation.[34]

In the field of medicine, the role of physician was traditionally seen as masculine, while the role of nurse was considered feminine. These associations are now considered outdated in much of the world, although certain specializations, such as surgery and emergency medicine, are still dominated by a masculine culture.[35]

Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western cultures, and women are perceived less favorably as potential leaders.

Role Congruity Theory, which proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively, is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman.[38]

Explanations for occupational imbalance

It has been argued that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as the ability to bear children, caused a historical sexual division of labor and gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuate this division.[9]

The practice of bearing children tends to interrupt the continuity of employment[

truck driving. Anker argues the feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women.[33]

Role Congruity Theory, which proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected roles negatively, supports the empirical evidence that gender discrimination exists in areas traditionally associated with one gender or the other.[38]

Religion

Altai shaman

Asian religions

mudang (무당) is usually female, acting as an intercessor between the human and spirit worlds.[43]

File:Tridevi.png
Shakti and the Tridevi of: Lakshmi, Parvati, and Saraswati

In

feminine
, with inspiration being the life force of creation.

Yin and yang

In Taoism, the concept of yin represents the primary force of the female half of yin and yang. The yin is also present, to a smaller proportion, in the male half. The yin can be characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive.[45]

In Judaeo-Christian theology

Holy Wisdom: Hagia Sophia

The

wisdom tradition, wisdom is the feminine aspect of God.[46] According to the Book of Job, "Wisdom comes from nothingness."[47] In the Book of Wisdom, wisdom is “the fashioner of all things” (v. 22). Because wisdom is God’s “creative agent,” she must be intimately identified with God.[48]

Ruach HaKodesh
(divine inspiration) are feminine.

In the

Chokhmah (wisdom and intuition) is the force in the creative process that God used to create the heavens and the earth. Binah (understanding and perseption) is the great mother, the feminine receiver of energy and giver of form. Binah receives the intuitive insight from Chokhmah and dwells on it in the same way that a mother receives the seed from the father, and keeps it within her until it's time to give birth. The intuition, once received and contemplated with perception, leads to the Creation of the Universe.[49]

Feminine athleticism

Main article: Women's_sports

Clothing and appearance

Main article: Clothing § Gender differentiation

In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, light skin, a narrow waist, and little or no body hair or facial hair.[5][50][51] In other cultures, however, these standards may vary. For example, in many parts of the world, underarm hair is not considered unfeminine.[52]

These feminine ideals of beauty have been criticized by feminists and others as restrictive, unhealthy, and racist.

eating disorders in Western countries has frequently been blamed on the feminine ideal of thinness.[54]

History

In some cultures, cosmetics are associated with femininity

Cultural standards vary a great deal on what is considered feminine. For example, in 16th Century France,

high heels were considered a masculine type of shoe, though they are currently considered feminine.[55]

In

maphorion.[56]

The typical feminine outfit of aristrocratic women of the Renaissance was an undershirt with a gown and a high-waisted overgown, and a plucked forehead and beehive or turban-style hairdo.[56]

Body alteration

Main article:
Body alteration

Body alteration is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or non-medical purpose.[57] One such purpose has been to induce perceived feminine characteristics in women.

For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it often made walking difficult and painful.[58][59]

In a few parts of Africa and Asia, neck rings are worn in order to elongate the neck. In these cultures, a long neck is characterizes feminine beauty. The rings stretch the vertebrae until a person's neck can no longer support her head. This ironically disabling aspect is particularly troubling to humanitarian aid workers.[60]

Feminist views

See also: Feminism

Feminist philosophers such as Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir contend that femininity and masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender.[61]

Many second-wave feminists reject what they regard as constricting standards of female beauty, created for the subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and women's own aesthetics.[62]

Others, such as third-wave feminists and lipstick feminists, argue that feminism shouldn't devalue feminine culture and identity, and that symbols of feminine identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure can be valid and empowering personal choices for both sexes.[63][64]

Femininity in men

Main article: Effeminacy
RuPaul, a famous drag queen.

Men who behave in ways associated with femininity may be called

cross-dressers.[65] A drag queen
is a man who wears women's clothing and behaves in an extremely feminine manner for entertainment purposes.

Femininity is not necessarily related to a man's sexuality, though male femininity is often associated with homosexuality in modern Western culture.[66][67]

The terms femiphobia, effeminophobia, and sissyphobia are sometimes used to describe a generally negative attitude displayed in many societies towards feminine men.[68][69]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Reinventing the sexes: the biomedical construction of femininity and masculinity. Race, gender, and science. Indiana University Press. 1997. pp. 171 pages. Retrieved June 3, 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Unknown parameter |id ISBN= ignored (help)
  2. ^ Masculinity and Femininity in the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A. U of Minnesota Press. 2010. pp. 310 pages. Retrieved June 3, 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Unknown parameter |id ISBN= ignored (help)
  3. ^ a b c d Gender, power, and communication in human relationships. Psychology Press. 1995. pp. 366 pages. Retrieved June 3, 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Unknown parameter |id ISBN= ignored (help)
  4. ^ a b Sexual politics: an introduction. Edinburgh University Press. 2000. pp. 240 pages. Retrieved June 3, 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Unknown parameter |id ISBN= ignored (help)
  5. ^
    ISBN 0840032048
    .
  6. ^ Gender, Women and Health: What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?' The World Health Organization
  7. ISBN 9048137829. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help
    )
  8. ^ a b c Vetterling-Braggin, Mary "Femininity," "masculinity," and "androgyny": a modern philosophical discussion
  9. ^ a b c Worell, Judith, Encyclopedia of women and gender: sex similarities and differences and the impact of society on gender, Volume 1 Elsevier, 2001, ISBN 0122272463, 9780122272462
  10. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
  11. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica
  12. ^ Blake, Emma (2005). The archaeology of Mediterranean prehistory. Nashville: Blackwell Publishing. p. 140.
  13. ^ Allen, Volume 2, The Early Humanist Reformation, Part 1, p. 6.
  14. ^ ‘Inventing Womanhood’: new book explores origins of femininity
  15. ^ Encyclopedia of contemporary American culture by Gary W. McDonogh, Robert Gregg, Cindy H. Wong
  16. ^ Eva Peron: The Myths of a Woman by Julie M. Taylor
  17. ^ Feminist visions of gender similarities and differences by Meredith M. Kimball
  18. ^ a b Ria Kloppenborg, Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Female stereotypes in religious traditions, BRILL, 1995, ISBN 9004102906, 9789004102903
  19. ^ a b Ussher, Jane M. Fantasies of femininity: reframing the boundaries of sex
  20. ^ Halpern, Diane F, Sex Differences In Cognitive Abilities, 2000
  21. ^ a b c Fine, Cordelia Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference 2010
  22. ^ Ann M. Gallagher, James C. Kaufman, Gender differences in mathematics: an integrative psychological approach, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0521826055, 9780521826051
  23. ^ Hall Judith A (1978). "Gender effects in decoding nonverbal cues". Psychological bulletin 85 (4): 845–857. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.4.845
  24. ^ Judith A. Hall (1984): Nonverbal sex differences. Communication accuracy and expressive style. 207 pp. Johns Hopkins University Press.
  25. ^ Ickes, W. (1997). Empathic accuracy. New York: The Guilford Press.
  26. ^ Klein K. Hodges S. (2001). "Gender Differences, Motivation, and Empathic Accuracy: When it Pays to Understand". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27 (6): 720–730.
  27. ^ DM Marx, DA Stapel - Distinguishing Stereotype Threat from Priming Effects: On the Role of the Social Self and Threat-Based Concerns Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2006 - arno.uvt.nl
  28. ^ Schaffer, Amanda, The Sex Difference Evangelists, Slate, July 2, 2008 http://www.slate.com/id/2194486/entry/2194489
  29. ^ Baron-Cohen, Simon. "The Extreme-Male-Brain Theory of Autism"
  30. ^ Halpern, Diane F., Sex differences in cognitive abilities, Psychology Press, 2000, ISBN 0805827927, 9780805827927
  31. ^ Pateman, Carole (1988). The Sexual Contract, Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 207.
  32. ^ Jung, Carl. The Psychology of the Unconscious, Dvir Co., Ltd., Tel-Aviv, 1973 (originally 1917)
  33. ^
    ISBN 9789221095248
    .
  34. ^ Light, Jennifer S. "When Computers Were Women." Technology and Culture 40.3 (1999) 455-483
  35. ISBN 9780801476624. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help
    )
  36. ^ Chin, Jean Lau, Women and leadership: transforming visions and diverse voices Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, ISBN 1405155825, 9781405155823
  37. ^ a b Klenke, Karin, Women and Leadership: A Contextual Perspective , Springer Publishing Company, 2004 ISBN 0826192211, 9780826192219
  38. ^ a b Eagly, Alice H., Steven J. Karau, Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders, Psychological Review 2002
  39. ^ Jean Clottes. "Shamanism in Prehistory". Bradshaw foundation. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
  40. ^ Karl J. Narr. "Prehistoric religion". Britannica online encyclopedia 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-28.
  41. ^ Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam.
  42. ^ Lee, Jung Yong (1973). "Concerning the Origin and Formation of Korean Shamanism". Numen. 20 (2): 135–159. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  43. ^ Oak, Sung-Deuk (2010). "Healing and Exorcism: Christian Encounters with Shamanism in Early Modern Korea". Asian Ethnology. 69 (1): 95–128.
  44. ^ Sacred Sanskrit words, p.111
  45. ^ Osgood, Charles E. "From Yang and Yin to and or but." Language 49.2 (1973): 380–412 . JSTOR. 16 Nov. 2008 <http://www.jstor.org/search>.
  46. ^ Goddesses and the Divine Feminine: A Western Religious History By Rosemary Radford Ruether
  47. ^ Job. 28:12
  48. ^ David Winston, The Wisdom of Solomon: a new translation with introduction and commentary, (New York, Doubleday, 1979), p. 194 ISBN 0385016441
  49. ^ The Kabbalah Of Isaac Luria Glossary
  50. ISBN 0719083230. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help
    )
  51. ^
    ISBN 0742514218
    .
  52. ISBN 0415214246
    .
  53. ISBN 9780073404301
    .
  54. ISBN 9780195108705. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help
    )
  55. ^ Brown, William, Art of shoe making, Global Media, 2007, 8189940295, 9788189940294
  56. ^ a b Condra, Jill, The Greenwood encyclopedia of clothing through world history: Prehistory to 1500 CE, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, ISBN 0313336636, 9780313336638
  57. ^ What is body modification?
  58. ^ Binding: Bone Breaking Beauty, August, 2009
  59. ^ [1]
  60. ^ http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/newmandala/2007/05/16/bound-by-tradition/
  61. ^ Butler, J. (1990). ‘’Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity.’’ New York; Routledge.
  62. ^ http://newhumanist.org.uk/1781
  63. ^ Scanlon, Jennifer, Bad girls go everywhere: the life of Helen Gurley Brown, Oxford University Press US, 2009, ISBN 0195342054, 9780195342055
  64. ^ Joanne Hollows; Rachel Moseley (17 February 2006). Feminism in popular culture. Berg Publishers. p. 84. ISBN 9781845202231. http://books.google.com/books?
  65. ^ cross-dress." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
  66. ^ Why do gays fall for straights? The Advocate, Feb 17, 1998, 72 pages, No. 753, ISSN 0001-8996, Published by Here Publishing
  67. ^ Pezzote, Angelo Straight Acting: Gay Men, Masculinity and Finding True Love, Kensington Publishing Corp., 2008, ISBN 0758219431, 9780758219435
  68. ^ Bailey, J. Michael (2003). The Man Who Would Be Queen: The Science of Gender-Bending and Transsexualism. Joseph Henry Press, ISBN 978-0309084185
  69. ^ Fellows, Will, A Passion to Preserve: Gay Men as Keepers of Culture, Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2005, ISBN 0299196844, 9780299196844
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Femininity&oldid=438511113"