Betsimisaraka people
Austronesians |
The Betsimisaraka ("the many inseparables") are the second largest
Through the late 17th century, the various clans of the eastern coastal region were governed by chieftains who typically ruled over one or two villages. A zana-malata pirate named
Culturally, the Betsimisaraka can be divided into northern and southern sub-groups. Many elements of culture are common across both groups, including
Ethnic identity
The Betsimisaraka constitute approximately 15 percent of the population of Madagascar and numbered over 1,500,000 in 2011.
History
Until the beginning of the 18th century, the peoples who would constitute the core of the Betsimisaraka were organized into numerous clans under the authority of chiefs (filohany) who each typically ruled over no more than one or two villages. Those around
Around 1700 the Tsikoa began uniting around a series of powerful leaders.
Ratsimilaho's son Zanahary succeeded him in 1755. A despotic leader, Zanahary launched a series of attacks against villages under his authority and was assassinated by his own subjects in 1767. Zanahary was succeeded by his son Iavy, who was detested for continuing his father's practice of attacking villages under his control, and for enriching himself by cooperating with French slave traders.
The
When the French colonized Madagascar in 1896, initial Betsimisaraka satisfaction with the fall of the Merina government rapidly evolved into displeasure with French control. This led to an uprising the same year among Betsimisaraka, particularly including the bandits and other outlaws who had long been living according to their own law in the eastern rainforests;[17] the movement extended to the broader Betsimisaraka population, who mounted a strong resistance to French rule in 1895.[18] These efforts were eventually subdued. After regaining control, the French colonial authority took steps to address the repercussions of historical subjugation of the Betsimisaraka by the Merina kingdom, providing increased access to basic education as well as opportunities for paid labor at plantations, but often on former Betsimisaraka land that the French authorities had forced local inhabitants to relinquish to colonists.[19]
In 1947, a nationwide uprising against French colonial rule was initiated in Moramanga, a town in Bezanozano territory neighboring the Betsimisaraka. During the conflict, Betsimisaraka nationalists fought French and Senegalese soldiers in an unsuccessful attempt to regain control of the port at Tamatave, the island's most important trading port.[20] Betsimisaraka fighters and civilians suffered very heavy losses and some of the worst human rights abuses, including execution by being thrown alive from airplanes.[21]
The country gained independence in 1960. It was led throughout the
Society
Social life revolves around the agricultural year, with preparation of fields beginning in October, the harvest of rice in May, and the winter months from June to September set aside for ancestor worship and other major rituals and customs.[25]
There are clear gender divisions among the Betsimisaraka. When traveling by foot in a mixed gender group, it is forbidden for women to walk before men.
Religious affiliation
Religious rites and customs are traditionally presided over by a tangalamena officiant. Betsimisaraka communities widely believe in various supernatural creatures, including ghosts (angatra), mermaids (zazavavy an-drano) and the imp-like kalamoro.[29] Efforts to Christianize the local population began in the early 19th century but were largely unsuccessful at first.[30] During the colonial period the influence of Christianity among the local population grew, but where it is practiced is often blended syncretically with traditional ancestor worship.[31] Syncretism of Christian and indigenous beliefs led to the motif that the sun (or the moon) was the original location for the Garden of Eden.[32]
Culture
Although there are differences between the northern and southern Betsimisaraka, many major aspects of their culture are similar.[33] Major customs among the Betsimisaraka include sambatra (circumcision), folanaka (the birth of a tenth child), ritual sacrifice of zebu for the ancestors, and celebrating the inauguration of a newly constructed house. Marriage, death, birth, the New Year and Independence Day are also communally celebrated.[25] The practice of tromba (ritual spirit possession) is widespread among the Betsimisaraka.[34] Both men and women act as mediums and spectators in these events.[35]
The indigenous raffia palm was the base fiber for the clothing traditionally worn by the Betsimisaraka. Leaves of the raffia were combed to separate the fibers, which were knotted end to end to form strands that could then be woven together to form cloth.[36] Among the various peoples who united under the Betsimisaraka confederation, women wore a short wrapper (simbo), typically with a bandeau top (akanjo), while men wore smocks.[37] Traditional raffia clothing is still worn by some Betsimisaraka today.[29]
The Betsimisaraka hold lemurs in high regard and tell several legends in which lemurs come to the aid of prominent Betsimisaraka figures. According to one story, a lemur saved the life of a Betsimisaraka ancestor from a grave peril. In another tale, a group of Betsimisaraka sought refuge in a forest from a marauding enemy group. Their enemies followed them into the forest, tracking the Betsimisaraka by what they believed to be the sound of their voices. Upon reaching the source of the sound they discovered a group of ghostly-looking lemurs and, believing the Betsimisaraka had been transformed into animals by magic, fled the area in terror.[38] The spirits of Betsimisaraka ancestors are believed to reside inside the bodies of lemurs. Consequently, in general it is forbidden for the Betsimisaraka to kill or eat lemurs, and it is obligatory to free a trapped lemur and to bury a dead lemur with the same rites as a person.[39]
Crocodiles are also viewed with reverence and fear. At river banks where they are known to gather, it is not uncommon for Betsimisaraka villagers to throw them zebu hindquarters (the most favored cut), whole geese and other offerings on a daily basis. Amulets for protection against crocodiles are commonly worn or thrown into the water in areas where the animals congregate. It is commonly believed that witches and sorcerers are closely linked with crocodiles, being capable of ordering them to kill others and of walking among them without being attacked. The Betsimisaraka believe witches and sorcerers appease crocodiles by feeding them rice at night, and some are accused of walking crocodiles through Betsimisaraka villages at midnight or even being married to the crocodiles, which they then enslave to do their bidding.[40]
Fady
Among some Betsimisaraka it is considered fady for a brother to shake hands with his sister, or for young men to wear shoes during their father's lifetime.[29] Among many Betsimisaraka, the eel is considered sacred. It is forbidden to touch, fish or eat eel.[41] Although many coastal Malagasy communities have a fady against the consumption of pork, this is not universal or common among the Betsimisaraka, who often keep pigs in their villages.[42]
Complex taboos and rites are associated with a woman's first childbirth. When about to give birth she is secluded in a special birthing house called a komby. The leaves she eats from and the waste produced by the newborn are kept in a special receptacle for seven days, at which point they are burned. The ash produced is rubbed on the forehead and cheeks of the mother and baby and must be worn for seven days. On the fifteenth day both are bathed in water in which lime or lemon leaves have been soaked. This ritual is called ranom-boahangy (bath of the leaves). The community gathers to drink rum and celebrate with wrestling matches, but the mother must stay in the komby. She is not allowed to consume anything other than saonjo greens and a chicken specially prepared for her. After this celebration she is required to leave the komby and can return to routine life.[43]
Among the Betsimisaraka, like several other Malagasy ethnic groups, there is a fady against speaking the name of a chief after his death or any word that formed part of the name. The deceased leader was given a new name after death that all were required to use, and specific synonyms were selected to replace the words composing his name for use in regular conversation;[44] anyone who spoke the forbidden words would be harshly punished or in some instances executed.[45]
Funeral rites
Some Betsimisaraka, principally those living around Maroantsetra, practice the famadihana reburial ceremony, although in a simpler form than that practiced in the Highlands.[46] Coffins are placed in tombs only in southern Betsimisaraka; in the north, they are placed under outdoor shelters.[29] While in mourning, women will unbraid their hair and stop wearing their akanjo, while men no longer wear a hat; the mourning period typically lasts two to four months depending on how closely related the individual was to the deceased.[47]
Dance and music
The ceremonial dance music style most closely associated with the tromba among the Betsimisaraka is called basesa and is performed on accordion.
Language
The Betsimisaraka speak several dialects of the Malagasy language, which is a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages, spoken in southern Borneo.[49]
Economy
The Betsimisaraka economy remains largely agricultural, with many cultivating vanilla and rice.[29] Manioc, sweet potatoes, beans, taro, peanuts and a variety of greens are also commonly cultivated; other staple crops include sugar cane, coffee, bananas, pineapples, avocado, breadfruit, mangoes, oranges and lychees.[50] Cattle are not widely raised; more commonly, the Betsimisaraka may catch and sell river crabs, shrimp and fish, small hedgehogs, various local insects[50] or wild boar and birds in the forest. They also produce and sell homemade sugarcane beer (betsa) and rum (toaka).[51] The production of spices for culinary use and for distillation into perfumes remains a major economic activity, with a perfume distillery located in Fenoarivo Atsinanana.[52] Gold, garnet and other precious stones are also mined and exported from the Betsimisaraka region.[53]
Notes
- ^ https://www.groene.nl/artikel/avant-gardisten-van-de-beschaving
- ^ Shoup 2001, p. 181.
- ^ a b c d e f Ogot 1992, p. 882.
- ^ Bradt & Austin 2007.
- ^ Emoff 2002, p. 25.
- ^ a b c Ogot 1992, p. 883.
- ^ a b Emoff 2002, p. 29.
- ^ a b c Emoff 2002, p. 30.
- ^ Emoff 2002, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Ogot 1992, p. 871.
- ^ Ellis 2014, p. 40.
- ^ a b Ellis 2014, p. 28.
- ^ Emoff 2002, p. 31.
- ^ a b Ellis 2014, p. 42.
- ^ Emoff 2002, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Ellis 2014, p. 58.
- ^ Ellis 2014, p. 134.
- ^ Ellis 2014, p. 143.
- ^ Emoff 2002, p. 33.
- ^ Emoff 2002, p. 21.
- ^ Emoff 2002, p. 34.
- ^ Emoff 2002, p. 35.
- ^ "Madagascar: Stumbling at the first hurdle?" (PDF). Institute for Security Studies. April 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-05.
- Swiss Peace Foundation. 31 May 2007.
- ^ a b Nielssen 2011, p. 22.
- ^ Gennep 1904, p. 156.
- ^ Gennep 1904, p. 157.
- ^ Gennep 1904, pp. 155–156.
- ^ a b c d e Bradt & Austin 2007, p. 26.
- ^ Ellis 2014, p. 41.
- ^ Emoff 2002, p. 20.
- ^ "ASK BALLADEER: IS THERE A MALAGASY SOLAR DEITY?". Balladeer's Blog. 2018-06-03. Retrieved 2018-06-14.
- ^ Emoff 2002, p. 13.
- ^ Nielssen 2011, p. 2.
- ^ a b Emoff 2002, p. xi.
- ^ Condra 2013, p. 455.
- ^ Condra 2013, p. 456.
- ^ Gennep 1904, pp. 217–218.
- ^ Gennep 1904, pp. 220–221.
- ^ Gennep 1904, p. 280.
- ^ Gennep 1904, p. 290.
- ^ Gennep 1904, p. 225.
- ^ Gennep 1904, p. 167.
- ^ Gennep 1904, pp. 110–112.
- ^ Gennep 1904, p. 340.
- ^ Bradt & Austin 2007, p. 307.
- ^ Gennep 1904, p. 63.
- ^ Emoff 2002, p. 69.
- ^ Emoff 2002, p. 19.
- ^ a b Nielssen 2011, p. 24.
- ^ Nielssen 2011, p. 25.
- ^ Bradt & Austin 2007, p. 319.
- ^ Nielssen 2011, p. 26.
Bibliography
- Bradt, Hilary; Austin, Daniel (2007). Madagascar (9th ed.). Guilford, CT: The Globe Pequot Press Inc. ISBN 978-1-84162-197-5.
- Condra, Jill (2013). Encyclopedia of National Dress: Traditional Clothing Around the World. Los Angeles: ABC Clio. ISBN 978-0-313-37637-5.
- Ellis, Stephen (2014). The Rising of the Red Shawls. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107634893.
- Emoff, Ron (2002). Recollecting from the Past: Musical Practice and Spirit Possession on the East Coast of Madagascar. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 9780819565006.
- Gennep, A.V. (1904). Tabou Et Totémisme à Madagascar (in French). Paris: Ernest Leroux. ISBN 978-5-87839-721-6.
- Nielssen, Hilde (2011). Ritual Imagination: A Study of Tromba Possession Among the Betsimisaraka in Eastern Madagascar. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 9789004215245.
- Ogot, Bethwell A. (1992). Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Paris: UNESCO. ISBN 9789231017117.
- Shoup, John (2001). Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia. New York: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598843620.