Dzungar–Qing Wars

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Dzungar–Qing Wars

The Dzungar army surrenders to the Qing dynasty after Dawachi being captured in 1756.[1]
Date1687–1758
Location
Inner and Outer Mongolia, Tibet, Qinghai, Xinjiang
Result

First (1687–1697): Qing conquest of Outer Mongolia
Second (1720): Qing conquest of Tibet
Third (1723): Qing conquest of Qinghai

Fourth (1755): Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate and the creation of Xinjiang
Territorial
changes		 Outer Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang added into the Qing Empire
Belligerents
Dzungar Khanate

Qing dynasty

Commanders and leaders
Galdan Boshugtu Khan
Tsewang Rabtan
Amursana
Ming Rui
Agui
Emin Khoja

The Dzungar–Qing Wars (Mongolian: Зүүнгар-Чин улсын дайн, simplified Chinese: 准噶尔之役; traditional Chinese: 準噶爾之役; pinyin: Zhǔngá'ěr zhī Yì; lit. 'Dzungar Campaign') were a decades-long series of conflicts that pitted the Dzungar Khanate against the Qing dynasty and its Mongol vassals. Fighting took place over a wide swath of Inner Asia, from present-day central and eastern Mongolia to Tibet, Qinghai, and Xinjiang regions of present-day China. Qing victories ultimately led to the incorporation of Outer Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang into the Qing Empire that was to last until the fall of the dynasty in 1911–1912, and the genocide of much of the Dzungar population in the conquered areas.

Background

See also:
Northern Yuan dynasty, Qing dynasty in Inner Asia, and Dzungar conquest of Altishahr

After the collapse of the

Choros clan. The Dzungar Oirats under Erdeni Batur and Zaya Pandita held a pan-Oirat-Mongol conference in 1640 with all Oirat and Mongol tribes participating except the Inner Mongols under Qing rule. The conference ended in failure. By the 1650s, the Dzungar Khanate, an Oirat state centered in Dzungaria and western Mongolia, had risen to become the preeminent khanate in the region and was often in conflict with Khalkha Mongols, the remnants of the Northern Yuan dynasty, of eastern Mongolia. Upon assuming the throne after the death of his brother Sengge in 1670, Galdan Boshugtu Khan launched a series of successful campaigns to expand his territory as far as present-day eastern Kazakhstan, and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia. Through skillful diplomacy, Galdan maintained peaceful relations with the Qing dynasty while also establishing relations with Russia. However, when Galdan's brother Dorjijab was killed in a skirmish with troops loyal to the Khalkha khan in 1687, Galdan took the pretext to launch a full-scale invasion of eastern Mongolia. He destroyed several Khalkha tribes at the battle of Olgoi Nor (Olgoi Lake) in 1688, sending twenty thousand refugees fleeing south to Qing territory.[6]

The Khalkha rulers, defeated, fled to Hohhot and sought Qing assistance.[7] Meanwhile, the Qing had secured a peace treaty with the Cossacks on their northern border, who had previously been inclined to support Galdan. The Treaty of Nerchinsk prevented an alliance between Galdan and the Russians, leaving the Qing free to attack their Mongol rivals.[8] Fearing a united Mongol state ruled by the hostile Dzungars, the Qing now turned their powerful war machine on the Oirats.[9]

The Dzungars had conquered and subjugated the Uyghurs during the Dzungar conquest of Altishahr after being invited by the Afaqi Khoja to invade the Chingisid Chagatai ruled Yarkent Khanate. Heavy taxes were imposed upon the Uyghurs by the Dzungars, provoking resentment.[10] This led to uprisings and Uyghur rebels from Turfan and Kumul who were rebelling against Dzungar rule joined the Qing in their war against the Dzungars. The Yarkent Khanate under Muhammad Amin Khan presented tribute to the Qing dynasty twice to request aid against the Dzungar attack.[11]

The Dzungars used the Zamburak, camel mounted miniature cannons, in battle, notably at Ulan Butung.[12] Gunpowder weapons like guns and cannons were deployed by the Qing and the Dzungars at the same time against each other.[13]

First Dzungar-Qing War

First Dzungar – Qing War

Military camp of the Chinese Emperor at Kherlen River during the campaign of 1696
Date1687–1697
Location
Mongolia
Result Qing victory, Dzungar Khanate weakened, death of Galdan Boshugtu Khan.
Belligerents
Dzungar Khanate

 Qing dynasty

  • Remnants of the
    Northern Yuan
    (Vassal of the Qing)
  • Kumul Khanate (Vassal of the Qing)
Commanders and leaders
Galdan Boshugtu Khan Kangxi Emperor
Chakhundorji
Abdullah Beg
Strength
20,000–30,000[14] 100,000[14]
Casualties and losses
Unknown Unknown

The First Dzungar–Qing War was a military conflict fought from 1687 to 1697 between the

Northern Yuan dynasty. The war resulted from a Dzungar attack on the Northern Yuan dynasty based in Outer Mongolia, who were heavily defeated in 1688. Their rulers and twenty thousand refugees fled south to the Qing dynasty, which feared the growing power of the Dzungar state. Motivated by the opportunity to gain control over Mongolia and by the threat posed to them by a strong, unified Mongol state such as the Oirats threatened to form, the Qing sent their army north to subdue the Dzungars in 1690.[15]

Qing scouts attacked a Dzungar party north of the Great Wall. However, this proved to be the main Dzungar army, which destroyed the Qing detachment easily.

Khalkhyn Gol in the south.[18]

A pause in the conflict ensued. The Khalkha rulers declared themselves Qing vassals at

Genghisid khans, merging the Khalkha forces into the Qing army.[19] The Kangxi Emperor had now become determined to "exterminate" Galdan. Negotiations between the two sides bore little fruit. The Dzungars cast about for allies, making overtures to the Russians and various Mongol princes, but were rejected.[20] Kangxi set about preparing the complex logistics necessary to support a planned 1696 expedition. This included procuring 1,333 carts, each carrying 6 shi of grain. Three armies eventually advanced north in 1696. One, under the command of Fiyanggu, numbering 30,000 and to be reinforced with a further 10,000, was to trap Galdan, while Kangxi personally led 32,000 men, including 235 cannon on camelback. A third, numbering 10,000, halted further to the east and would play no part in the coming campaign. The Dzungar army, heavily outnumbered and weakened by the plague, was unable to offer serious resistance. Galdan's army attacked the western force at the Battle of Jao Modo in May 1696, but was narrowly - albeit decisively- defeated. The Dzungar army, bereft of artillery, suffered heavily from Chinese musketry and cannon fire,[21] eventually breaking. The battle ended in a victory for the Qing army, who captured 20,000 sheep and 40,000 cattle, and captured, killed or scattered all but 40-50 of the Dzungar army, effectively destroying them as a military force. Galdan himself had managed to escape from an enemy encirclement, thanks in part to a counterattack led by his wife, Queen Anu.[22] Galdan's wife was killed, and Galdan fled west to the Altai Mountains, where later he attempted to surrender to the Qing, but died of the plague[9] in 1697 with only a few loyal men at his side.[23]

After the war, a Qing garrison was stationed in the area of present-day Ulaanbaatar, and Khalkha Mongolia was placed under Qing rule. Outer Mongolia was effectively incorporated into the Qing Empire. On the other hand, Tsewang Rabtan, a long-time anti-Galdan Oirat chief, who had actually provided intelligence to the Qing[9] at several points during the war, succeeded Galdan as Khan of the Dzungars. While the Qing managed to sideline the Dzungar in the 1690s, they would not completely eradicate them until they defeated the Dzungars in subsequent wars several decades later.[24]

Second Dzungar–Qing War, in Tibet

7th Dalai Lama pretender, Lha-bzang Khan
See also: Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)

In 1642,

Dzungar–Qing War.[29][30]
Jalangga, a Manchu Bannermen, succeeded the Han General Yue Zhongqi as commander in 1732.[31]

The Manchu

Galdan, who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and the Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami.[32]

Third Dzungar–Qing War

In 1723, the

Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Due to geography, the Qing army (although superior in numbers) was at first unable to engage their more mobile enemy. Eventually, they met the Dzungars and defeated them. This campaign cost the treasury at least eight million silver taels. Later in Yongzheng's reign, he sent a small army of 10,000 to fight the Dzungars again. However, that army was annihilated near the Khoton Lake in 1731 and the Qing Empire once again faced the danger of losing control of Mongolia. A Khalkha ally of the Qing Empire would finally defeat the Dzungars a year later in 1732 near the Erdene Zuu Monastery
in Mongolia. The Qing then made peace with the Dzungar Khanate and decided the border between them.

The Oirats were fought by Yue Zhongqi in Ürümqi.[29][30][33] Yue Zhongqi lived at the Ji Xiaolan Residence.

Final conquest of the Dzungars

See also: Ten Great Campaigns § Campaigns against the Dzungars and the pacification of Xinjiang (1755–59), and Dzungar genocide
Map showing wars between the Qing dynasty and Dzungar Khanate

In 1752,

Gulja) and forced Dawachi to surrender. Qianlong appointed Amursana as the Khan of Khoid
and one of four equal khans – much to the displeasure of Amursana, who wanted to be the Khan of the Dzungars.

Amursana now rallied the majority of the remaining Oirats to rebel against Qing authority. In 1758, General Zhaohui defeated the Dzungars in two battles: the

Us-Turfan submitted to the Qing Empire. After all of these battles, Amursana fled to Russia (where he died) while Chingünjav fled north to Darkhad but was captured at Wang Tolgoi
and executed in Beijing.

  • Zhaohui receives the surrender of Dawachi at Ili, 1755. Painting by Jesuit painter at the Qing court, Ignatius Sichelbart.
    Zhaohui receives the surrender of Dawachi at Ili, 1755. Painting by Jesuit painter at the Qing court, Ignatius Sichelbart.
  • "Storming of the Camp at Gädän-Ola", a scroll depicting a raid in 1755 in which the Kalmuk Ayusi, having gone to the Chinese side, attacks Dawa achi's camp on Mount Gadan. Painting by Giuseppe Castiglione.
    "Storming of the Camp at Gädän-Ola", a scroll depicting a raid in 1755 in which the Kalmuk Ayusi, having gone to the Chinese side, attacks Dawa achi's camp on Mount Gadan. Painting by Giuseppe Castiglione.
  • The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu, 1756. Chinese general Zhao Hui attacked the Zunghars at night in present Wusu, Xinjiang. Painting by Giuseppe Castiglione.
    The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu, 1756. Chinese general Zhao Hui attacked the Zunghars at night in present Wusu, Xinjiang. Painting by Giuseppe Castiglione.
  • "The Victory of Khorgos". The partisans of Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab. Painting by Jean Denis Attiret.[34]
    "The Victory of Khorgos". The partisans of Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab. Painting by Jean Denis Attiret.[34]
  • Battle of Khurungui, 1758. General Zhao Hui ambushes and defeats the Zungarian forces of Amoursana on Mount Khurungui (near Almaty, Kazakhstan). Painted by Jean-Damascène Sallusti.
    Battle of Khurungui, 1758. General Zhao Hui ambushes and defeats the Zungarian forces of Amoursana on Mount Khurungui (near Almaty, Kazakhstan). Painted by Jean-Damascène Sallusti.

See also

References

  1. ^ "平定准噶尔图卷". 中国国家博物馆.[permanent dead link]
  2. ISBN 978-0-520-07124-7
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  3. ^ "昭莫多之战：康熙亲征获胜，噶尔丹服毒自杀_中国历史网". Archived from the original on April 11, 2023. Retrieved May 1, 2016.
  4. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on August 22, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  5. ISBN 978-0-8135-3533-3
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  6. ^ Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West:The Qing Conquest of Central Asia, pg. 149
  7. ^ New Qing Imperial History:The Making of an Inner Asian Emire at Qing Chengde, Ruth W. Dunnell, Mark Elliot, James A. Millward, pg. 99
  8. ^ The Tea Road:China and Russia Meet Across the Steppe, pg. 106, Martha Avery
  9. ^ a b c The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet:Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing, 44,45, Yincong Dai
  10. ISBN 978-92-3-103876-1
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  11. ISBN 9231038761
    . Retrieved April 22, 2014.
  12. ^ Millward 2007, p. 89.
  13. ^ Haines, Spencer (2017). "The 'Military Revolution' Arrives on the Central Eurasian Steppe: The Unique Case of the Zunghar (1676 - 1745)". Mongolica: An International Journal of Mongolian Studies. 51. International Association of Mongolists: 170–185.
  14. ^ a b History of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Vadiam Mikhailovich Masson, pg. 148
  15. ^ Haines, R Spencer (2015). "Myth, Misconception, and Motive for the Zunghar Intervention in Khalkha Mongolia in the 17th Century". Paper Presented at the Third Open Conference on Mongolian Studies, Canberra, ACT, Australia. The Australian National University.
  16. ^ Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West:The Qing Conquest of Central Asia, 153
  17. ^ The Cambridge History of China, Willard J. Peterson, pg.154
  18. ^ Historical Dictionary of Mongolia, Alan Sanders, pg. 288, Scarecrow Press
  19. ^ J. Millward, Eurasian Crossroads:A history of Xinjiang, pg. 91
  20. ^ Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West:The Qing Conquest of Central Asia,177-180
  21. ^ Wars in the Age of Louis Xiv, 1650-1715, C.J.Nolan, p.g. 224
  22. ISBN 978-0810879843
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  23. ^ Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West:The Qing Conquest of Central Asia,148- 189
  24. ^ Haines, R Spencer (2016). "The Physical Remains of the Zunghar Legacy in Central Eurasia: Some Notes from the Field". Paper Presented at the Social and Environmental Changes on the Mongolian Plateau Workshop, Canberra, ACT, Australia. The Australian National University.
  25. ^ René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes, New Brunswick 1970, p. 522
  26. ^ Mullin 2001, p. 288
  27. ^ Mullin 2001, p. 290
  28. ^ Smith 1997, p. 125
  29. ^
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  30. ^
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  31. hdl:10822/761498
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  32. ISBN 978-0674042025
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  33. hdl:10822/761498
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  34. ISBN 978-1-60606-457-3
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