Tibet

Coordinates: 31°N 89°E / 31°N 89°E / 31; 89
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Tibet
Population
• 2023 estimate
7,000,000 (Tibetan people)
Greater Tibet consist of Ü-Tsang, Kham and Amdo. Modern states consist of Tibet Autonomous Region + Parts of Qinghai, Sichuan and Yunnan. Also, a large part of present-day Uyghuristan and parts of India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh were part of the Tibetan Empire
in the past.

Cultural/historical, (highlighted) depicted with various competing territorial claims

              Greater Tibet as claimed by Tibetan exile groups
  Tibetan autonomous areas, as designated by China
  Tibet Autonomous Region, within China
Chinese-controlled, claimed by India as part of Ladakh
Indian-controlled, parts claimed by China as South Tibet
Other areas historically within the Tibetan cultural sphere
Tibet
Tibetan
བོད

Tibet (

People's Republic of China. Tibet is divided administratively into the Tibet Autonomous Region, and parts of the Qinghai and Sichuan provinces. Tibet is also constitutionally claimed by the Republic of China as the Tibet Area since 1912. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an average elevation of 4,380 m (14,000 ft).[1][2] Located in the Himalayas, the highest elevation in Tibet is Mount Everest, Earth's highest mountain, rising 8,848.86 m (29,032 ft) above sea level.[3]

The

Pamirs in the west, to Yunnan and Bengal in the southeast. It then divided into a variety of territories. The bulk of western and central Tibet (Ü-Tsang) was often at least nominally unified under a series of Tibetan governments in Lhasa, Shigatse, or nearby locations. The eastern regions of Kham and Amdo often maintained a more decentralized indigenous political structure, being divided among a number of small principalities and tribal groups, while also often falling under Chinese rule; most of this area was eventually annexed into the Chinese provinces of Sichuan and Qinghai. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century.[4]

Following the

Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of the Tibet Area (Ü-Tsang). The region subsequently declared its independence in 1913, although this was not recognised by the subsequent Chinese Republican government.[5] Later, Lhasa took control of the western part of Xikang. The region maintained its autonomy until 1951 when, following the Battle of Chamdo, Tibet was occupied and annexed by the People's Republic of China. The Tibetan government was abolished after the failure of the 1959 Tibetan uprising.[6] Today, China governs western and central Tibet as the Tibet Autonomous Region while the eastern areas are now mostly autonomous prefectures within Sichuan, Qinghai and other neighbouring provinces. The Tibetan independence movement[7] is principally led by the Tibetan diaspora.[8] Human rights groups have accused the Chinese government of abuses of human rights in Tibet, including torture.[9][10]

The dominant

Tibetan architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences. Staple foods in Tibet are roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea. With the growth of tourism in recent years, the service sector has become the largest sector in Tibet, accounting for 50.1% of the local GDP in 2020.[12]

Names and etymologies

Map of the approximate extent of the three provinces, Ü-Tsang, Amdo, and Kham, of the Tibetan Empire (8th century) overlaid on a map of modern borders

The

Geographia (Ptolemy, 2nd century CE),[13] itself from the Sanskrit form Bhauṭṭa of the Indian geographical tradition.[14]

The modern

exonym for the ethnic Tibetan region is Zangqu (Chinese: 藏区; pinyin: Zàngqū), which derives by metonymy from the Tsang region around Shigatse plus the addition of a Chinese suffix (), which means 'area, district, region, ward'. Tibetan people, language, and culture, regardless of where they are from, are referred to as Zang (Chinese: ; pinyin: Zàng), although the geographical term Xīzàng is often limited to the Tibet Autonomous Region. The term Xīzàng was coined during the Qing dynasty in the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor (1796–1820) through the addition of the prefix (西, 'west') to Zang.[citation needed
]

The best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo (Chinese:

Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include:

American Tibetologist Elliot Sperling has argued in favor of a recent tendency by some authors writing in Chinese to revive the term Tubote (simplified Chinese: 图伯特; traditional Chinese: 圖伯特; pinyin: Túbótè) for modern use in place of Xizang, on the grounds that Tubote more clearly includes the entire Tibetan plateau rather than simply the Tibet Autonomous Region.[16]

The English word Tibet or Thibet dates back to the 18th century.

Arabic: طيبة، توبات; Hebrew: טובּה, טובּת), itself deriving from Turkic Töbäd (plural of töbän), literally 'The Heights'.[18]

Language

Ethnolinguistic map of Tibet (1967)

Linguists generally classify the

Himalayan languages can be unclear. According to Matthew Kapstein
:

From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles

Sino-Tibetan, and that through it Tibetan and Burmese are distant cousins of Chinese.[19]

Tibetan family in Kham attending a horse festival

The language has numerous regional dialects which are generally not mutually intelligible. It is employed throughout the Tibetan plateau and Bhutan and is also spoken in parts of Nepal and northern India, such as Sikkim. In general, the dialects of central Tibet (including Lhasa), Kham, Amdo and some smaller nearby areas are considered Tibetan dialects. Other forms, particularly Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Sherpa, and Ladakhi, are considered by their speakers, largely for political reasons, to be separate languages. However, if the latter group of Tibetan-type languages are included in the calculation, then 'greater Tibetan' is spoken by approximately 6 million people across the Tibetan Plateau. Tibetan is also spoken by approximately 150,000 exile speakers who have fled from modern-day Tibet to India and other countries.[citation needed]

Although spoken Tibetan varies according to the region, the written language, based on

Brāhmī script.[20]

Starting in 2001, the local

deaf sign languages of Tibet were standardized, and Tibetan Sign Language
is now being promoted across the country.

The first Tibetan-English dictionary and grammar book was written by Alexander Csoma de Kőrös in 1834.[21]

History

Early history

Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara of Jainism, is considered to have attained nirvana near Mount Kailash in Tibet in Jain tradition.[22]
Songtsen Gampo

Humans inhabited the Tibetan Plateau at least 21,000 years ago.[23] This population was largely replaced around 3,000 BP by Neolithic immigrants from northern China, but there is a partial genetic continuity between the Paleolithic inhabitants and contemporary Tibetan populations.[23]

The earliest Tibetan historical texts identify the

Bön religion.[25] By the 1st century BCE, a neighboring kingdom arose in the Yarlung valley, and the Yarlung king, Drigum Tsenpo, attempted to remove the influence of the Zhang Zhung by expelling the Zhang's Bön priests from Yarlung.[26] He was assassinated and Zhang Zhung continued its dominance of the region until it was annexed by Songtsen Gampo in the 7th century. Prior to Songtsen Gampo, the kings of Tibet were more mythological than factual, and there is insufficient evidence of their existence.[27]

Tibetan Empire

Map of the Tibetan Empire at its greatest extent between the 780s and the 790s CE

The history of a unified Tibet begins with the rule of

Yarlung River Valley and founded the Tibetan Empire. He also brought in many reforms, and Tibetan power spread rapidly, creating a large and powerful empire. It is traditionally considered that his first wife was the Princess of Nepal, Bhrikuti, and that she played a great role in the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. In 640, he married Princess Wencheng, the niece of the Chinese emperor Taizong of Tang China.[28]

Under the next few Tibetan kings, Buddhism became established as the state religion and Tibetan power increased even further over large areas of Central Asia, while major inroads were made into Chinese territory, even reaching the Tang's capital Chang'an (modern Xi'an) in late 763.[29] However, the Tibetan occupation of Chang'an only lasted for fifteen days, after which they were defeated by Tang and its ally, the Turkic Uyghur Khaganate.

Miran fort

The

Kingdom of Nanzhao (in Yunnan and neighbouring regions) remained under Tibetan control from 750 to 794, when they turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped the Chinese inflict a serious defeat on the Tibetans.[30]

In 747, the hold of Tibet was loosened by the campaign of general

An Lushan Rebellion
(755), Chinese influence decreased rapidly and Tibetan influence resumed.

At its height in the 780s to 790s, the Tibetan Empire reached its highest glory when it ruled and controlled a territory stretching from modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan.

In 821/822 CE, Tibet and China signed a peace treaty. A bilingual account of this treaty, including details of the borders between the two countries, is inscribed on a stone pillar which stands outside the

Islamic invasion
from Bengal took place in 1206.

Yuan dynasty

The Mongol Yuan dynasty, c. 1294

The Mongol

Sakya lama retained a degree of autonomy, acting as the political authority of the region, while the dpon-chen held administrative and military power. Mongol rule of Tibet remained separate from the main provinces of China, but the region existed under the administration of the Yuan dynasty. If the Sakya lama ever came into conflict with the dpon-chen, the dpon-chen had the authority to send Chinese troops into the region.[32]

Tibet retained nominal power over religious and regional political affairs, while the Mongols managed a structural and administrative

Khuden gained temporal power in Tibet in the 1240s and sponsored Sakya Pandita, whose seat became the capital of Tibet. Drogön Chögyal Phagpa, Sakya Pandita's nephew became Imperial Preceptor of Kublai Khan
, founder of the Yuan dynasty.

Yuan control over the region ended with the Ming overthrow of the Yuan and Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen's revolt against the Mongols.[34] Following the uprising, Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen founded the Phagmodrupa dynasty, and sought to reduce Yuan influences over Tibetan culture and politics.[35]

Phagmodrupa, Rinpungpa and Tsangpa dynasties

Gyantse Fortress

Between 1346 and 1354, Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen toppled the Sakya and founded the Phagmodrupa dynasty. The following 80 years saw the founding of the Gelug school (also known as Yellow Hats) by the disciples of Je Tsongkhapa, and the founding of the important Ganden, Drepung and Sera monasteries near Lhasa. However, internal strife within the dynasty and the strong localism of the various fiefs and political-religious factions led to a long series of internal conflicts. The minister family Rinpungpa, based in Tsang (West Central Tibet), dominated politics after 1435. In 1565 they were overthrown by the Tsangpa dynasty of Shigatse which expanded its power in different directions of Tibet in the following decades and favoured the Karma Kagyu sect.

Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, based on earlier Jesuit maps.
Tibet in 1892 during the Qing dynasty

Rise of Ganden Phodrang and Buddhist Gelug school

In 1578,

Tümed Mongols gave Sonam Gyatso, a high lama of the Gelugpa school, the name Dalai Lama, Dalai being the Mongolian translation of the Tibetan name Gyatso "Ocean".[36]

The 5th Dalai Lama (1617-1682) is known for unifying the Tibetan heartland under the control of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism, after defeating the rival Kagyu and Jonang sects and the secular ruler, the Tsangpa prince, in a prolonged civil war. His efforts were successful in part because of aid from Güshi Khan, the Oirat leader of the Khoshut Khanate. With Güshi Khan as a largely uninvolved overlord, the 5th Dalai Lama and his intimates established a civil administration which is referred to by historians as the Lhasa state. This Tibetan regime or government is also referred to as the Ganden Phodrang.

Qing dynasty

Potala Palace

Manchus living in Lhasa were killed in a riot, and Qing troops arrived quickly and suppressed the rebels in the next year. Like the preceding Yuan dynasty, the Manchus of the Qing dynasty exerted military and administrative control of the region, while granting it a degree of political autonomy. The Qing commander publicly executed a number of supporters of the rebels and, as in 1723 and 1728, made changes in the political structure and drew up a formal organization plan. The Qing now restored the Dalai Lama as ruler, leading the governing council called Kashag,[38] but elevated the role of Ambans to include more direct involvement in Tibetan internal affairs. At the same time, the Qing took steps to counterbalance the power of the aristocracy by adding officials recruited from the clergy to key posts.[39]

For several decades, peace reigned in Tibet, but in 1792, the Qing Qianlong Emperor sent a large Chinese army into Tibet to push the invading Nepalese out. This prompted yet another Qing reorganization of the Tibetan government, this time through a written plan called the "Twenty-Nine Regulations for Better Government in Tibet". Qing military garrisons staffed with Qing troops were now also established near the Nepalese border.[40] Tibet was dominated by the Manchus in various stages in the 18th century, and the years immediately following the 1792 regulations were the peak of the Qing imperial commissioners' authority; but there was no attempt to make Tibet a Chinese province.[41]

In 1834, the

Treaty of Chushul between the Chinese and Sikh empires.[42]

Putuo Zongcheng Temple, a Buddhist temple complex in Chengde, Hebei, built between 1767 and 1771. The temple was modeled after the Potala Palace.

As the Qing dynasty weakened, its authority over Tibet also gradually declined, and by the mid-19th century, its influence was minuscule. Qing authority over Tibet had become more symbolic than real by the late 19th century,[43][44][45][46] although in the 1860s, the Tibetans still chose for reasons of their own to emphasize the empire's symbolic authority and make it seem substantial.[47]

In 1774, a Scottish nobleman, George Bogle, travelled to Shigatse to investigate prospects of trade for the East India Company. His efforts, while largely unsuccessful, established permanent contact between Tibet and the Western world.[48] However, in the 19th century, tensions between foreign powers and Tibet increased. The British Empire was expanding its territories in India into the Himalayas, while the Emirate of Afghanistan and the Russian Empire were both doing likewise in Central Asia.[citation needed]

In 1904, a

Convention Between Great Britain and Tibet with the Tibetans, which guaranteed the British great economic influence but ensured the region remained under Chinese control. The Qing imperial resident, known as the Amban, publicly repudiated the treaty, while the British government, eager for friendly relations with China, negotiated a new treaty two years later known as the Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet. The British agreed not to annex or interfere in Tibet in return for an indemnity from the Chinese government, while China agreed not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet.[49]

In 1910, the Qing government sent a military expedition of its own under Zhao Erfeng to establish direct Manchu-Chinese rule and, in an imperial edict, deposed the Dalai Lama, who fled to British India. Zhao Erfeng defeated the Tibetan military conclusively and expelled the Dalai Lama's forces from the province. His actions were unpopular, and there was much animosity against him for his mistreatment of civilians and disregard for local culture.[citation needed]

Post-Qing period

Edmund Geer during the 1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet
outcast group
, early 20th century. Their hereditary occupation included disposal of corpses and leather work.

After the

Yangtze River.[53] In 1914, the Tibetan government signed the Simla Convention with Britain, which recognized Chinese suzerainty over Tibet in return for a border settlement. China refused to sign the convention and lost its suzerain rights.[54]

When in the 1930s and 1940s the regents displayed negligence in affairs, the Kuomintang Government of the Republic of China took advantage of this to expand its reach into the territory.[55] On December 20, 1941, Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai-Shek noted in his diary that Tibet would be among the territories which he would demand as restitution for China following the conclusion of World War II.[56]

From 1950 to present

A poster saying "Thank you India. 50 years in Exile." Manali, 2010.

Emerging with control over most of

Seventeen Point Agreement with the newly enthroned 14th Dalai Lama's government, affirming the People's Republic of China's sovereignty but granting the area autonomy. Subsequently, on his journey into exile, the 14th Dalai Lama completely repudiated the agreement, which he has repeated on many occasions.[57][58] According to the CIA, the Chinese used the Dalai Lama to gain control of the military's training and actions.[59]

The Dalai Lama had a strong following as many people from Tibet looked at him not just as their political leader, but as their spiritual leader.

Central People's Government in Beijing renounced the agreement and began implementation of the halted social and political reforms.[61] During the Great Leap Forward, between 200,000 and 1,000,000 Tibetans may have died[62] and approximately 6,000 monasteries were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution—destroying the vast majority of historic Tibetan architecture.[63]

In 1980, General Secretary and reformist

separatist campaign.[64] Human rights organisations have been critical of the Beijing and Lhasa governments' approach to human rights in the region when cracking down on separatist convulsions that have occurred around monasteries and cities, most recently in the 2008 Tibetan unrest
.

The central region of Tibet is now an autonomous region within China, the Tibet Autonomous Region. The Tibet Autonomous Region is a province-level entity of the People's Republic of China. It is governed by a People's Government, led by a chairman. In practice, however, the chairman is subordinate to the branch secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). In 2010 it was reported that, as a matter of convention, the chairman had almost always been an ethnic Tibetan, while the party secretary had always been ethnically non-Tibetan.[65]

Geography

Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas above 1600 m – topography.[66][67] Tibet is often called the "roof of the world".
Himalayas, on the southern rim of the Tibetan plateau

All of modern China, including Tibet, is considered a part of

Central China plain
. In China, Tibet is regarded as part of 西部 (Xībù), a term usually translated by Chinese media as "the Western section", meaning "Western China".

Mountains and rivers

View over Lhasa, 1993
Yarlung Tsangpo River

Tibet has some of the world's tallest mountains, with several of them making the top ten list.

Yarlung Tsangpo River
, is among the deepest and longest canyons in the world.

Tibet has been called the "Water Tower" of Asia, and China is investing heavily in water projects in Tibet.[70][71]

Yamdrok Lake

The Indus and Brahmaputra rivers originate from the vicinities of Lake

Dong Co
. The Qinghai Lake (Koko Nor) is the largest lake in the People's Republic of China.

Climate

The climate is severely dry nine months of the year, and average annual snowfall is only 46 cm (18 inches), due to the rain shadow effect. Western passes receive small amounts of fresh snow each year but remain traversible all year round. Low temperatures are prevalent throughout these western regions, where bleak desolation is unrelieved by any vegetation bigger than a low bush, and where the wind sweeps unchecked across vast expanses of arid plain. The Indian monsoon exerts some influence on eastern Tibet. Northern Tibet is subject to high temperatures in the summer and intense cold in the winter.

Climate data for Lhasa (1986−2015 normals, extremes 1951−2022)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 20.5
(68.9)
21.3
(70.3)
25.1
(77.2)
25.9
(78.6)
29.4
(84.9)
30.8
(87.4)
30.4
(86.7)
27.2
(81.0)
26.5
(79.7)
24.8
(76.6)
22.8
(73.0)
20.1
(68.2)
30.8
(87.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 8.4
(47.1)
10.1
(50.2)
13.3
(55.9)
16.3
(61.3)
20.5
(68.9)
24.0
(75.2)
23.3
(73.9)
22.0
(71.6)
20.7
(69.3)
17.5
(63.5)
12.9
(55.2)
9.3
(48.7)
16.5
(61.7)
Daily mean °C (°F) −0.3
(31.5)
2.3
(36.1)
5.9
(42.6)
9.0
(48.2)
13.1
(55.6)
16.7
(62.1)
16.5
(61.7)
15.4
(59.7)
13.8
(56.8)
9.4
(48.9)
3.8
(38.8)
−0.1
(31.8)
8.8
(47.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −7.4
(18.7)
−4.7
(23.5)
−0.8
(30.6)
2.7
(36.9)
6.8
(44.2)
10.9
(51.6)
11.4
(52.5)
10.7
(51.3)
8.9
(48.0)
3.1
(37.6)
−3
(27)
−6.8
(19.8)
2.7
(36.8)
Record low °C (°F) −16.5
(2.3)
−15.4
(4.3)
−13.6
(7.5)
−8.1
(17.4)
−2.7
(27.1)
2.0
(35.6)
4.5
(40.1)
3.3
(37.9)
0.3
(32.5)
−7.2
(19.0)
−11.2
(11.8)
−16.1
(3.0)
−16.5
(2.3)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 0.9
(0.04)
1.8
(0.07)
2.9
(0.11)
8.6
(0.34)
28.4
(1.12)
75.9
(2.99)
129.6
(5.10)
133.5
(5.26)
66.7
(2.63)
8.8
(0.35)
0.9
(0.04)
0.3
(0.01)
458.3
(18.06)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 0.6 1.2 2.1 5.4 9.0 14.0 19.4 19.9 14.6 4.1 0.6 0.4 91.3
Average
relative humidity
(%)
26 25 27 36 41 48 59 63 59 45 34 29 41
Mean monthly sunshine hours 250.9 231.2 253.2 248.8 280.4 260.7 227.0 214.3 232.7 280.3 267.1 257.2 3,003.8
Percent possible sunshine 78 72 66 65 66 61 53 54 62 80 84 82 67
Source 1: China Meteorological Administration,[72] all-time extreme temperature[73][74]
Source 2: China Meteorological Administration National Meteorological Information Center
Climate data for Leh (1951–1980)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 8.3
(46.9)
12.8
(55.0)
19.4
(66.9)
23.9
(75.0)
28.9
(84.0)
34.8
(94.6)
34.0
(93.2)
34.2
(93.6)
30.6
(87.1)
25.6
(78.1)
20.0
(68.0)
12.8
(55.0)
34.8
(94.6)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −2.0
(28.4)
1.5
(34.7)
6.5
(43.7)
12.3
(54.1)
16.2
(61.2)
21.8
(71.2)
25.0
(77.0)
25.3
(77.5)
21.7
(71.1)
14.6
(58.3)
7.9
(46.2)
2.3
(36.1)
12.8
(55.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −14.4
(6.1)
−11.0
(12.2)
−5.9
(21.4)
−1.1
(30.0)
3.2
(37.8)
7.4
(45.3)
10.5
(50.9)
10.0
(50.0)
5.8
(42.4)
−1.0
(30.2)
−6.7
(19.9)
−11.8
(10.8)
−1.3
(29.7)
Record low °C (°F) −28.3
(−18.9)
−26.4
(−15.5)
−19.4
(−2.9)
−12.8
(9.0)
−4.4
(24.1)
−1.1
(30.0)
0.6
(33.1)
1.5
(34.7)
−4.4
(24.1)
−8.5
(16.7)
−17.5
(0.5)
−25.6
(−14.1)
−28.3
(−18.9)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 9.5
(0.37)
8.1
(0.32)
11.0
(0.43)
9.1
(0.36)
9.0
(0.35)
3.5
(0.14)
15.2
(0.60)
15.4
(0.61)
9.0
(0.35)
7.5
(0.30)
3.6
(0.14)
4.6
(0.18)
105.5
(4.15)
Average rainy days 1.3 1.1 1.3 1.0 1.1 0.4 2.1 1.9 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 13.0
Average
relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST
)
51 51 46 36 30 26 33 34 31 27 40 46 38
Source: India Meteorological Department[75][76]

Wildlife

Sus scrofa expanded from its origin in southeast Asia into the Plateau, acquiring and fixing adaptive alleles for the high-altitude environment.[77] The forests of Tibet are home to black bears, red pandas, musk deer, barking deer, and squirrels. Monkeys such as rhesus macaques and langurs live in the warmer forest zones. Tibetan antelopes, gazelles, and kiangs gaze on the grasslands of the Tibetan plateau. There are more than 500 bird species in Tibet. Because of the high altitude and harsh climate, there are few insects in Tibet.[78]

Snow leopards are hunted for their fur and the eggs of black-necked cranes have been collected as a delicacy food.

Regions

, eastern Tibet

Cultural Tibet consists of several regions. These include Amdo (A mdo) in the northeast, which is administratively part of the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, and Sichuan. Kham (Khams) in the southeast encompasses parts of western Sichuan, northern Yunnan, southern Qinghai, and the eastern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region. Ü-Tsang (dBus gTsang) (Ü in the center, Tsang in the center-west, and Ngari (mNga' ris) in the far west) covered the central and western portion of Tibet Autonomous Region.[79]

Tibetan cultural influences extend to the neighboring states of

autonomous areas
in adjacent Chinese provinces.

Cities, towns and villages

Lhasa

There are over 800 settlements in Tibet. Lhasa is Tibet's traditional capital and the capital of Tibet Autonomous Region.[78] It contains two world heritage sites – the Potala Palace and Norbulingka, which were the residences of the Dalai Lama. Lhasa contains a number of significant temples and monasteries, including Jokhang and Ramoche Temple.

Qamdo
are also amongst the largest.

Other cities and towns in cultural Tibet include

Jyekundo (Yushu), Machen, and Golmud; in India, Tawang, Leh, and Gangtok, and in Pakistan, Skardu, Kharmang, and Khaplu
.

Economy

The Tibetan yak is an integral part of Tibetan life.

The Tibetan economy is dominated by

goats, camels, yaks, dzo, and horses
.

The main crops grown are barley, wheat, buckwheat, rye, potatoes, and assorted fruits and vegetables. Tibet is ranked the lowest among China's 31 provinces[80] on the Human Development Index according to UN Development Programme data.[81] In recent years, due to increased interest in Tibetan Buddhism, tourism has become an increasingly important sector, and is actively promoted by the authorities.[82] Tourism brings in the most income from the sale of handicrafts. These include Tibetan hats, jewelry (silver and gold), wooden items, clothing, quilts, fabrics, Tibetan rugs and carpets. The Central People's Government exempts Tibet from all taxation and provides 90% of Tibet's government expenditures.[83][84][85][86] However, most of this investment goes to pay migrant workers who do not settle in Tibet and send much of their income home to other provinces.[87]

Pastoral nomads constitute about 40% of the ethnic Tibetan population.[88]

Forty percent of the rural cash income in the Tibet Autonomous Region is derived from the harvesting of the fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (formerly Cordyceps sinensis); contributing at least 1.8 billion yuan, (US$225 million) to the region's GDP.[89]

Tromzikhang market in Lhasa

The

Qingzang railway linking the Tibet Autonomous Region to Qinghai Province was opened in 2006, but it was controversial.[90][91][92]

In January 2007, the Chinese government issued a report outlining the discovery of a large mineral deposit under the Tibetan Plateau.[93] The deposit has an estimated value of $128 billion and may double Chinese reserves of zinc, copper, and lead. The Chinese government sees this as a way to alleviate the nation's dependence on foreign mineral imports for its growing economy. However, critics worry that mining these vast resources will harm Tibet's fragile ecosystem and undermine Tibetan culture.[93]

On January 15, 2009, China announced the construction of Tibet's first expressway, the

yuan (US$227 million).[94]

From January 18–20, 2010, a national conference on Tibet and areas inhabited by Tibetans in Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu and Qinghai was held in China and a plan to improve development of the areas was announced. The conference was attended by General secretary

better source needed
]

Development zone

The State Council approved Tibet Lhasa Economic and Technological Development Zone as a state-level development zone in 2001. It is located in the western suburbs of Lhasa, the capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region. It is 50 kilometres (31 miles) away from the

Gonggar Airport
, and 2 km (1.2 mi) away from Lhasa Railway Station and 2 km (1.2 mi) away from 318 national highway.

The zone has a planned area of 5.46 km2 (2.11 sq mi) and is divided into two zones. Zone A developed a land area of 2.51 km2 (0.97 sq mi) for construction purposes. It is a flat zone, and has the natural conditions for good drainage.[96]

Demographics

The Flag of Tibet, also known as the "Snow Lion flag" (gangs seng dar cha), was used by the de facto independent state of Tibet as the national flag. It continues to be used by the Tibetan government-in-exile and by supporters of the Tibetan independence movement.
Tibetan Lamanis, c. 1905
An elderly Tibetan woman in Lhasa

Historically, the population of Tibet consisted of primarily ethnic

.

The proportion of the non-Tibetan population in Tibet is disputed. On the one hand, the Central Tibetan Administration of the Dalai Lama accuses China of actively swamping Tibet with

better source needed
]

Culture

Tibetan cultural zone

Religion

Buddhism

Monkhood in Tibet, Xigatse area, August 2005
The Phugtal Monastery in south-east Zanskar
Drepung
Monastery

Religion is extremely important to the Tibetans and has a strong influence over all aspects of their lives.

Red Guards.[100][101][102] A few monasteries have begun to rebuild since the 1980s (with limited support from the Chinese government) and greater religious freedom has been granted – although it is still limited. Monks returned to monasteries across Tibet and monastic education resumed even though the number of monks imposed is strictly limited.[100][103][104] Before the 1950s, between 10 and 20% of males in Tibet were monks.[105]

Tibetan Buddhism has five main traditions (the suffix pa is comparable to "er" in English):

The Chinese government continued to pursue a strategy of forced assimilation and suppression of Tibetan Buddhism, as demonstrated by the laws designed to control the next reincarnation of the Dalai Lama and those of other Tibetan eminent lamas. Monks and nuns who refused to denounce the Dalai Lama have been expelled from their monasteries, imprisoned, and tortured.[107]

It was reported in June 2021 that amidst the

2020–2022 China–India skirmishes, the People's Liberation Army had been forming a new unit for Tibetans who would be taken to Buddhist monks for religious blessings after completing their training.[108]

Christianity

The first Christians documented to have reached Tibet were the

Karma Pakshi (1204/6-83), head of the Karma Kagyu order.[109][110] Desideri, who reached Lhasa in 1716, encountered Armenian and Russian merchants.[111]

Roman Catholic Jesuits and Capuchins arrived from Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. Portuguese missionaries Jesuit Father António de Andrade and Brother Manuel Marques first reached the kingdom of Gelu in western Tibet in 1624 and was welcomed by the royal family who allowed them to build a church later on.[112][113] By 1627, there were about a hundred local converts in the Guge kingdom.[114] Later on, Christianity was introduced to Rudok, Ladakh and Tsang and was welcomed by the ruler of the Tsang kingdom, where Andrade and his fellows established a Jesuit outpost at Shigatse in 1626.[115]

In 1661 another Jesuit,

Gelugpa sect in the 17th century until in 1745 when all the missionaries were expelled at the lama's insistence.[118][119][120][121][122][123]

In 1877, the

Isobel Kuhn of the China Inland Mission, among others who were active in this area.[124][125]

Proselytising has been illegal in China since 1949. But as of 2013, many Christian missionaries were reported to be active in Tibet with the tacit approval of Chinese authorities, who view the missionaries as a counterforce to Tibetan Buddhism or as a boon to the local economy.[126]

Islam

The Lhasa Great Mosque

Muslims have been living in Tibet since as early as the 8th or 9th century. In Tibetan cities, there are small communities of

Bonan. There is also a well established Chinese Muslim community (gya kachee), which traces its ancestry back to the Hui
ethnic group of China.

Tibetan art

Tibetan representations of art are intrinsically bound with

Buddha in various forms from bronze Buddhist statues and shrines, to highly colorful thangka paintings and mandalas.[citation needed] Thangkas are Tibet's traditional cloth paintings. Rendered on cotton cloth with a thin rod at the top, they portray Buddhist deities or themes in color and detail.[78]

  • A thangka painting in Sikkim
    A thangka painting in Sikkim
  • A ritual box
    A
    ritual box
  • A ceremonial priest's yak bone apron
    A ceremonial priest's yak bone apron

Architecture

Tibetan architecture contains Chinese and Indian influences, and reflects a deeply

Chörtens can vary, from roundish walls in Kham to squarish, four-sided walls in Ladakh
.

The most distinctive feature of Tibetan architecture is that many of the houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, and are often made out of a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth. Little fuel is available for heat or lighting, so flat roofs are built to conserve heat, and multiple windows are constructed to let in sunlight. Walls are usually sloped inwards at 10 degrees as a precaution against the frequent earthquakes in this mountainous area.

Standing at 117 metres (384 feet) in height and 360 metres (1,180 feet) in width, the Potala Palace is the most important example of Tibetan architecture. Formerly the residence of the Dalai Lama, it contains over one thousand rooms within thirteen stories, and houses portraits of the past Dalai Lamas and statues of the Buddha. It is divided between the outer White Palace, which serves as the administrative quarters, and the inner Red Quarters, which houses the assembly hall of the Lamas, chapels, 10,000 shrines, and a vast library of Buddhist scriptures. The Potala Palace is a World Heritage Site, as is Norbulingka, the former summer residence of the Dalai Lama.

Music

The music of Tibet reflects the cultural heritage of the trans-Himalayan region, centered in Tibet but also known wherever ethnic Tibetan groups are found in India, Bhutan, Nepal and further abroad. First and foremost Tibetan music is religious music, reflecting the profound influence of Tibetan Buddhism on the culture.

Tibetan music often involves

Kagyupa schools.[128]

Gesar
, who is a hero to ethnic Tibetans.

Festivals

The Monlam Prayer Festival

Tibet has various festivals, many for worshipping the Buddha,[129] that take place throughout the year. Losar is the Tibetan New Year Festival. Preparations for the festive event are manifested by special offerings to family shrine deities, painted doors with religious symbols, and other painstaking jobs done to prepare for the event. Tibetans eat Guthuk (barley noodle soup with filling) on New Year's Eve with their families. The Monlam Prayer Festival follows it in the first month of the Tibetan calendar, falling between the fourth and the eleventh days of the first Tibetan month. It involves dancing and participating in sports events, as well as sharing picnics. The event was established in 1049 by Tsong Khapa, the founder of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama's order.

Cuisine

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