Mongolia under Qing rule

Mongolia under Qing rule
Regions of the Qing dynasty
1635–1911
Flag (1889–1911) Imperial Seal
Outer Mongolia and Inner Mongolia within the Qing Empire, c. 1820
Capital	Uliastai (Outer Mongolia)[note 1] Hohhot (Inner Mongolia)
• Type	Qing hierarchy
Khalkha.	1691
• Outer Mongolia declares its independence from the Qing dynasty	December 1911
Preceded by Succeeded by Northern Yuan dynasty Dzungar Khanate Republic of China Bogd Khanate of Mongolia Uryankhay Republic

History of Mongolia
Timeline States Rulers Nobility Culture Politics Geography Language Religion
Prehistoric period Afanasievo culture 3300–2500 BC Chemurchek culture 2750–1900 BC Munkhkhairkhan culture 1800–1600 BC Sagsai culture 1500–1000 BC Ulaanzuukh culture 1450–1150 BC Deer stones culture 1400–700 BC Slab-grave culture 1100–300 BC Chandman culture 700–300 BC Pazyryk culture 600–300 BC
Ancient period Xiongnu 209 BC–93 AD Xianbei state 93–234 Rouran Khaganate 330–555 Göktürks (First, Eastern, and Second Turkic Khaganates) 555–630 682–744 Xueyantuo 628–646 Tang protectorate 647–682 Uyghur Khaganate 744–840 Liao dynasty 907–1125
Medieval period Mongol khanates 9th–12th century Khamag Mongol 1130–1206 Mongol Empire 1206–1368 Yuan dynasty 1271–1368 Northern Yuan 1368–1635 Oirat Confederation 1399–1634 Dzungar Khanate 1634–1757 Qing dynasty 1691–1911
Modern period National Revolution 1911 Bogd Khaganate 1911–1919 Chinese occupation 1919–1921 People's Revolution (Soviet intervention in Bogd Khanate) 1921 1921–1924 People's Republic 1924–1992 Democratic Revolution 1990 Modern Mongolia 1990–present
v t e

Mongolia under Qing rule was the rule of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China over the Mongolian Plateau, including the four Outer Mongolian aimags (a.k.a. "leagues") and the six Inner Mongolian aimags from the 17th century to the end of the dynasty. The term "Mongolia" is used here in the broader historical sense, and includes an area much larger than the modern-day state of Mongolia. By the early 1630s Ligdan Khan saw much of his power weakened due to the disunity of the Mongol tribes. He was subsequently defeated by the Later Jin dynasty and died soon afterwards. His son Ejei handed the Yuan imperial seal over to Hong Taiji in 1635, thus ending the rule of the Northern Yuan dynasty in Inner Mongolia. However, the Khalkha Mongols in Outer Mongolia continued to rule until they were overrun by the Dzungar Khanate in 1690, and they submitted to the Qing dynasty in 1691.

The Qing dynasty ruled Inner and Outer Mongolia for over 200 years. During this period, Qing rulers established separate administrative structures to govern each region. While the empire maintained firm control in both Inner and Outer Mongolia, the Mongols in Outer Mongolia (which is further from the capital Beijing) enjoyed a higher degree of autonomy,^[1] and also retained their own language and culture during this period.^[2]

History

The

After

Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrested in 1669 in Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai then bid his time and then he and his brother Lubuzung revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The Qing then crushed the rebels in a battle on April 20, 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy.

The Khalkha Mongols were more reluctant to come under Qing rule, only submitting to the

The three khans of Khalkha in Outer Mongolia had established close ties with the Qing dynasty since the reign of Hong Taiji, but had remained effectively self-governing. While Qing rulers had attempted to achieve control over this region, the Oyirods to the west of Khalkha under the leadership of

The Oirat Khoshut Upper Mongols in Qinghai rebelled against the Qing during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor but were crushed and defeated.

Khalkha Mongol rebels under Prince Chingünjav had plotted with the Dzungar leader Amursana and led a rebellion against the Qing at the same time as the Dzungars. The Qing crushed the rebellion and executed Chingünjav and his entire family.

Once brought under Qing control, the traditional clan structures of Inner and Outer Mongolia were replaced with the Manchu Banner system.^[19] This new administrative structure had drastic consequences for Mongolian culture, as the leader (Jasagh) of each banner was chosen by Qing authorities, although existing Mongol princes were often picked for the position.^[20] This had the impact of weakening relations between different Mongol clans, while also increasing ties between Mongol culture and the Qing court. Additionally, the Banner structure heightened the influence of Chinese culture over the Mongol clans, especially within Inner Mongolia, where Mongol princes used Chinese architecture to build their palaces.^[19]

Furthermore, Mongols were forbidden by the Qing from crossing the borders of their banners, even into other Mongol Banners, and from crossing into neidi (the Han Chinese 18 provinces). Doing so would result in serious punishment, thereby keeping the Mongol clans isolated and disconnected, preventing the formation of united Khanate and maintaining Qing control in these regions.^[21] Mongol pilgrims wanting to leave their banner's borders for religious reasons such as pilgrimage had to apply for passports to give them permission.^[22]

During the 18th century, despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement onto Manchu and Mongol lands, the Qing decided to settle Han refugees escaping the famine, floods, and drought of northern China into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. Consequently, Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.^[23] This settlement was partially enabled by the extensive borrowing of Mongol princes, who gave Banner lands to Han farmers as remittance for their debt to Han merchants. Accordingly, in 1791, the Qing government was petitioned by the Mongol prince of the Ghorlos Front Banner to legalize the Han settlers in the area.^[24] By the late 19th and early 20th century, Qing and Mongol nobles had sold the grassland of the Horqin region to Han Chinese farmers, resulting in a major degradation to the soil quality of the region.^[25]

A group of Han Chinese during the Qing dynasty called "Mongol followers" immigrated to Inner Mongolia who worked as servants for Mongols and Mongol princes and married Mongol women. Their descendants continued to marry Mongol women and changed their ethnicity to Mongol as they assimilated into the Mongol people, an example of this were the ancestors of Li Shouxin. They distinguished themselves apart from "true Mongols" 真蒙古.^[26][27][28]

In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou.^[29] In the 1780s after the Muslim rebellion in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing 張文慶 was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu 馬進祿 were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers.^[30] The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and to become slaves to Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper.^[31]

Inner Mongols and Khalkha Mongols rarely knew their ancestors past 4 generations and Mongol tribal society was not organized among patrilineal clans contrary to what was commonly thought, but included unrelated people at the base unit of organization.^[32] The Qing tried but failed to promote the Chinese Neo-Confucian ideology of organizing society along patrimonial clans among the Mongols.^[33]

Governance

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For the administration of Mongol regions, a bureau of Mongol affairs was founded, called Monggol jurgan in Manchu. By 1638 it had been renamed to Lifan Yuan, though it is sometimes translated in English as the "Court of Colonial Affairs" or the "Board for the Administration of Outlying Regions". This office reported to the Qing emperor and would eventually be responsible not only for the administration of Inner and Outer Mongolia, but also oversaw the appointments of Ambans in Tibet and Xinjiang, as well as Qing relations with Russia. Apart from day-to-day work, the office also edited its own statutes and a code of law for Outer Mongolia.

Unlike Tibet, Mongolia during the Qing period did not have any overall indigenous government. In Inner Mongolia, the empire maintained its presence through the Qing military forces based along Mongolia's southern and eastern frontiers, and the region was under tight control. In Outer Mongolia, the entire territory was technically under the jurisdiction of the military governor of

The Mongolian society consisted essentially of two classes, the nobles and the commoners. Every member of the Mongolian nobility held a rank in the Qing aristocracy, and there were ten ranks in total, while only the banner princes ruled with temporal power. In acknowledgement of their subordination to the Qing dynasty, the banner princes annually presented tributes consisting of specified items to the Emperor. In return, they would receive imperial gifts intended to be at least equal in value to the tribute, and thus the Qing court did not consider the presentation of tribute to be an economic burden to the tributaries. The Mongolian commoners, on the other hand, were for the most part banner subjects who owed tax and service obligations to their banner princes as well as the Qing government. The banner subjects each belonged to a given banner, which they could not legally leave without the permission of the banner princes, who assigned pasturage rights to his subjects as he saw fit, in proportion to the number of adult males rather than in proportion to the amount of livestock that to graze.

By the end of the eighteenth century, Mongolian nomadism had significantly decayed. The old days of nomad power and independence were gone. Apart from

The first half of the 19th century saw the heyday of the Qing order. Both Inner and Outer Mongolia continued to supply the Qing armies with

Tibetan Buddhism

After the invitation of the 3rd Dalai Lama to Mongolia and conversion of Altan Khan, king of the Tümed Mongols in 1578, nearly all Mongols had become Buddhist within 50 years, including tens of thousands of monks, almost all followers of the Gelug school and loyal to the Dalai Lama. During Hong Taiji's campaign against the last Mongol khan Ligdan Khan, he took on more and more the trappings of a universal king, including the sponsorship of the Tibetan Buddhism that the Mongols believed in. In private however, he viewed the belief in the Buddhist faith by the Mongols with disdain and thought to be destructive to Mongol identity; he said "The Mongolian princes are abandoning the Mongolian language; their names are all in imitation of the lamas".^[34] The Manchu leaders themselves like Hung Taiji did not personally believe in Tibetan Buddhism and did not want to convert, in fact the words "incorrigibles" and liars" were used to describe the Lamas by Hung Taiji,^[35] however Hung Taiji patronized Buddhism in order to exploit the Tibetans and Mongols belief in the religion.^[36] According to the Manchu historian Jin Qicong, Buddhism was used by Qing rulers to control Mongolians and Tibetans; it was of little relevance to ordinary Manchus in the Qing dynasty.^[37]

The Tibetan Buddhism was adored by the Qing court. The long association of the Manchu rulership with the Bodhisattva

Qianlong turned the Palace of Harmony (Yonghegong) into a Tibetan Buddhist temple for Mongols in 1744 and had an edict inscribed on a stele to commemorate it in Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Manchu, with most likely Qianlong having first wrote the Chinese version before the Manchu.[39]

The Khalkha nobles' power was deliberately undermined by Qianlong when he appointed the Tibetan Ishi-damba-nima of the Lithang royal family of the eastern Tibetans as the 3rd reincarnated

The Bogda Khan Mountain had silk, candles, and incense sent to it from Urga by the two Qing ambans.[43]

The Jebtsundamba and Panchen Lama were referred to as bogda by the Mongols.^[44]

Annually Mongol nobles had to pay a visit to the Qing Emperor who was referred to as "Bogda Khan", in Beijing.^[45]

The term "Bogda Khan" (or "Bogda Khakan") was used by the Mongols to refer to the Emperor (Hwang-ti).^[46]

Administrative divisions

Mongolia during Qing period was divided into two main parts: Inner (Manchu: Dorgi) Mongolia and Outer (Manchu: Tülergi) Mongolia. The division affected today's separation of modern Mongolia and Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of China. In addition to the Outer Mongolian 4 aimags and Inner Mongolian 6 leagues, there were also large areas such as the Khobdo frontier and the guard post zone along the Russian border where Qing administration exercised more direct control.

Inner Mongolia^[47] Inner Mongolia's original 24 Aimags were torn apart and replaced by 49 khoshuus (banners) which would later be organized into six chuulgans (leagues, assemblies). The eight Chakhar khoshuus and the two Tümed khoshuus around Guihua were directly administered by the Qing government.

• Jirim League
• Josutu League
• Juu Uda League
• Shilingol League
• Ulaan Chab league
• Ihe Juu League

Plus, followings were directly controlled by the Qing emperor.

• Chakhar 8 khoshuu
• Guihua (Hohhot) Tümed 2 khoshuu

Outer Mongolia

• Khalkha
  • Secen Khan aimag 23 khoshuu
  • Tüsheetu Khan aimag 20 khoshuu
  • Sain Noyon Khan aimag 24 khoshuu
  • Zasagtu Khan aimag 19 khoshuu
• Khövsgöl^[48]
• Tannu Uriankhai
• Kobdo Territory 30 khoshuu^{[citation needed]}
• Ili 13 khoshuu (in modern-day Xinjiang)^{[citation needed]}
• Khökh Nuur 29 khoshuu (Qinghai)^{[citation needed]}

West Hetao Mongolia

• Ejine khoshuu (modern day Ejina banner in Alxa aimag, Inner Mongolia)^{[citation needed]}
• Alasha khoshuu (modern day Alxa left and right banners in Alxa aimag, Inner Mongolia)^{[citation needed]}

Culture in Mongolia under Qing rule

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While the majority of the Mongolian population during this period was

During Qing era, Hüree (modern day Ulaanbaatar, capital of Mongolia) was home for rich culture. Hüree style songs constitute a large amount of the Mongolian traditional culture; some examples include "Alia Sender", "Arvan Tavnii Sar", "Tsagaan Sariin Shiniin Negen", "Zadgai Tsagaan Egule" and many more.

Scholarship in Mongolia during Qing period

Many books, including chronicles and poems, were written by the Mongols during the Qing period. Notable ones:

• Höh Sudar (The Blue Sutra), by Borjigin Vanchinbaliin Injinashi.

See also

• Mongolia under Yuan rule
• Manchuria under Qing rule
• Xinjiang under Qing rule
• Tibet under Qing rule
• Taiwan under Qing rule
• Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
• Lifan Yuan
• Dzungar–Qing War
• History of Mongolia
• Sangiin Kherem

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

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• Cassel, Par Kristoffer (2012). Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0199792054
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• Dvořák, Rudolf (1895). Chinas religionen ... Vol. 12, Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung).
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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mongolia 1691-1911.

• Manchu Years in the History of Mongolia
• From Alliance to Tutelage: A Historical Analysis of Manchu Mongol Relations before the Qing Conquest