First homosexual movement
The first homosexual movement was a socio-political movement which thrived in Germany from the late nineteenth century until 1933. The movement began in Germany because of a confluence of factors, including the criminalization of sex between men (
Reduced censorship and the growth of homosexual subcultures in German cities helped the movement to flourish during the
The movement began to wane in 1929 with the
Background
Homosexuals have faced persecution throughout
Some authors influenced by
The second half of the nineteenth century saw scientific research into homosexuality.
Organized activism in the German Empire
The homosexual movement in Imperial Germany was numerically tiny but it had a high profile and powerful allies.
Magnus Hirschfeld and the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee
The
In 1897, Hirschfeld founded the world's first homosexual organization, the
In 1899, the WhK began to publish the journal
Hirschfeld was able to persuade some psychiatrists (including Paul Näcke and Iwan Bloch) to soften their opinion on homosexuality by introducing them to the homosexual scene in Berlin.[41] He was also able to secure the acquittal or mitigation of the sentence of prosecuted homosexuals with his expert witness testimony.[42][43][44] In 1909, he persuaded the Berlin authorities to accept transvestite passes allowing people to cross-dress without fear of police harassment or arrest.[36][45] Hirschfeld also spent much time fundraising for the WhK and setting up its organizational structure, including branches in other German cities.[36] The WhK included women, some of whom identified as homosexual, and sponsored research into female homosexuality, although its main focus continued to be abolishing Paragraph 175.[46]
Masculinists
From the beginning of the movement, the majority of activists both inside and outside the WhK endorsed the idea that homosexual men belonged to a kind of
In 1896, 21-year-old
).In 1906,
Political debate
At the end of the nineteenth century there was debate over the Lex Heinze, a law that increased penalties for various sexual misdemeanors. August Bebel, the leader of the SPD and one of the first supporters of the WhK's petition, brought up Paragraph 175 in parliament, possibly to show the hypocrisy of the proposed law. Bebel argued that homosexuality was so prevalent that if everyone breaking the law was arrested, Germany's prisons would overflow. The law could only function if applied arbitrarily, leading poorer men to be jailed for the same actions for which wealthier men went unpunished.[27][63] Bebel and other social democrats were persuaded by the writings of Marxist journalist Eduard Bernstein, who condemned the prosecution of Oscar Wilde. Although homophobia was also prevalent among working-class Germans and some SPD politicians continued to support criminalization, the SPD was the most consistent ally of the anti-175 movement.[64] Hirschfeld considered it a victory that the Reichstag discussed Paragraph 175 in 1898 and again in 1905, by which point the SPD had adopted many of his own talking points.[65][24]
In late 1906,
During the affair, the German government began to consider reforms to the penal code. Instead of abolishing Paragraph 175, the parliamentary committee proposed to increase penalties for
World War I
Many homosexuals, like other Germans, volunteered to join the German Army and Imperial Navy after the outbreak of World War I. In April 1915, the WhK reported that more than half its membership was serving in the German Empire's military.[78] There was little organizing during the war.[79] Although some German servicemembers were charged with violating Paragraph 175, the military authorities did not aggressively investigate homosexual incidents.[78] In 1918, Germany lost the war and signed an armistice, sparking the German Revolution of 1918–1919.[80][81] After the war, it was a widespread belief that homosexuals, along with socialists, Jews, women, and others, had stabbed Germany in the back and caused its defeat. Homosexual activists cited their participation in the war as evidence of their patriotism and right to exist as free and equal citizens.[82][83]
Weimar Republic
After the revolution, the Weimar Republic was founded with one of the most modern and progressive constitutions in the world.[84][80] Traditional values seemed to have lost their hold on society during the era of revolutionary change.[85][86] Many homosexuals believed that they too would be able to enjoy greater freedom as a result of the war and the revolution, and made bolder claims to public space.[87][88] There was a shift from science to human rights and citizenship in the discourse of the homosexual movement.[89][83] The magazine Die Freundschaft was launched a year after the revolution and was the first homosexual publication to sell in kiosks to a mass audience.[90][91] Its editor Max Danielsen proclaimed, "The hour of liberation is now or never, for us ... We, the ostracized, persecuted, and misjudged, are set aglow by a new age of equal respect and equality."[87]
Homosexual scenes
The homosexual scenes in different German cities, although already in development during the nineteenth century, increased in visibility during the Weimar era.[93] By the mid-19th century, homosexuals were gathering in specific bars in Berlin, and in 1880 the first specifically gay-oriented establishment was opened.[94] Male prostitutes were noticeable in some German cities; most were under the age of 25 but above the age of consent, and many had migrated to cities looking for a job but lacked other economic opportunities. The beginning of the Great Depression in 1929 further worsened the prospects of working-class men and led to an increase in homosexual prostitution.[95] Hiring a prostitute put older homosexuals at risk of theft and blackmail.[96] Conversely, homosexual men were seen by the opponents of the homosexual movement as preying on vulnerable youths and seducing them into becoming homosexual with monetary payments[97]—a theory often cited by proponents of keeping Paragraph 175.[98]
By 1923 there were nearly a hundred gay and lesbian establishments in Berlin, segregated by class and other factors. Although most establishments were rather sedate,
Associations
Groups of friends who shared homosexual feelings were organizing in German cities into more formal associations. In the nineteenth century, such associations were rare, but their popularity increased exponentially in the Weimar years.[109] Unlike the WhK, their primary purpose was not educational or political but providing social interaction and a sense of community for their members. The societies organized meetups, dinners, and parties, soon drawing thousands of Germans; by the mid-1920s there was at least one society in every German city.[110] On 20 August 1920, several of these societies united under the Deutsche Freundschafts-Verband (German Friendship Society, DFV).[111] At this time, the word friend was a common euphemism for homosexual.[112][113] In 1923, Berlin-based businessman Friedrich Radszuweit persuaded the organization to rename itself the Bund für Menschenrecht (League for Human Rights, BfM), and took control of it, establishing a centralized organization. By the end of the decade, membership had increased from 2,000 in 1922 to an estimated 48,000. The BfM's membership was mainly middle-class young men in their twenties and thirties, although it also appealed to some working-class men.[111] Radszuweit also attempted to rescue the Theater des Eros, a homosexual theater group, by folding it into the BfM, but this was unsuccessful.[114]
These friendship associations and eventually the BfM were the first mass organizations for homosexuals.
Lesbian and transvestite organizations
By the second half of the 1920s, there were women's friendship associations (associated both with the BfM and DFV) in various cities throughout Germany and in
The Weimar Republic saw some of the first
Print media
Mass media aimed at a homosexual audience had been impossible in Imperial Germany because of censorship,[136] although scientific publications were generally allowed.[137] The German revolution abolished censorship.[138][139] Publishers took advantage of the opportunity to sell a plethora of new media dealing with different aspects of sexuality.[140] The first mass publication for a homosexual audience was Die Freundschaft, appearing weekly with an initial print run of 20,000 copies.[136] It aspired to be a "world parliament" for homosexual men and women, but its editors lacked the business acumen to make this possible and its personal ads led to a ban in 1923 and 1924.[141][142] By the end of the 1920s, more than 20 publications for gay, lesbian, and gender divergent audiences were published in Germany.[143]
Among those taking advantage of new business opportunities was Radszuweit, who built a publishing house that catered to gay and lesbian readers. Unlike the nonprofit organizations that preceded him, Radszuweit ran his publishing house like a business, seeing the pursuit of profit and the pursuit of homosexual rights to be compatible.
In the Weimar years, there was the first attempt to compile a
Censorship
Censorship advocates, who ranged from pro-democracy moderates to the far right, believed that exposure to the wrong media would turn young people to promiscuity or homosexuality instead of heterosexual family relationships. In the aftermath of a devastating war, there was a moral panic about sexualized media, which they perceived to be a threat to the German nation.[150][151] Censorship advocates prioritized homosexual publications because they believed that the publications could turn male adolescents into homosexuals.[152] Censorship was a major threat to the homosexual movement, which depended on these publications to exist and grow.[153] While conservatives feared that a book or magazine would suddenly transform a person's sexuality, lesbians described reading as part of a process in which they discovered their sexuality.[154] For homosexuals who were afraid to come out, lived in less tolerant parts of Germany, or could not afford to participate in other aspects of the subculture, the magazines provided their only connection to like-minded people and fostered a sense of community and identity.[155][156]
There was a trial of Die Freundschaft for violating the anti-obscenity statue, Paragraph 184, in 1921.[152] The court convicted the defendants, and the conviction was upheld on appeal to the supreme court. The ruling nevertheless was considered a victory for homosexual publications as the court set limits on what content could be considered obscene that expanded free expression compared to the prewar period.[157] The court decision banned erotic material defined broadly (one passage deemed obscene discussed two men kissing). Adapting to this decision, homosexual publications tried to avoid any sexual content, including in their personal ads.[158] Hirschfeld, one of the only sexologists in Germany who argued that homosexuality was exclusively innate, testified for the defense at many censorship trials.[159] In the early 1920s, Brand also faced lawsuits over his publications, especially their personal ads.[160]
In 1926, the Reichstag passed the Trash and Smut Law , which targeted publications considered immoral and aesthetically worthless; affected publications could not be publicly displayed or sold to minors.[161][162] Almost all homosexual publications publicly sold between 1927 and 1933 ended up on the lists of restricted publications at some point.[163][164] Faced with a listing, editors of homosexual publications had a difficult decision to make: publish under a different name, wait out the ban, or keep selling to subscribers only despite losing advertising revenue.[165] Radszuweit implemented self-censorship to get his publications off of the restricted list.[166] In contrast, Die Freundschaft sold only by subscription after 1927 to avoid censorship.[91] Radszuweit's attempt to promote his publications as respectable backfired, as he was unable to persuade those charged with enforcing the censorship law.[167] Part of the motivation for targeting homosexual publications with the law was to smother the homosexual movement, which could not exist without them. The regulators recognized that the periodicals were not commercially viable without the content objected to by morals campaigners.[168]
Respectability
Both the DFV and BfM "were oriented toward integration rather than sexual liberation for its own sake", according to historian Marti Lybeck, and defined themselves in opposition to the libertine nightclub culture.
The military service of many homosexual and transvestite men during World War I was often cited in Weimar-era publications, and Radszuweit criticized the Reichswehr for dismissing any soldier found to be homosexual.[176][177] In editorials, Radszuweit promoted respectability politics, but his respectable image was undercut by eroticized images of youths that he printed to increase sales. These images allowed his audience to fantasize about their own lives.[178] Historian Javier Samper Vendrell states, "This position may have been pragmatic, but it was nonetheless a flawed, conformist, and repressive demand for rights."[171]
The most-represented group in transvestite organizations were those who considered themselves cross-dressing heterosexual men, while homosexual cross-dressers were marginalized both in transvestite and homosexual associations.[179][45] Cross-dressing male prostitutes and criminals were seen as a threat to transvestite respectability; accordingly, they were banned and described in the transvestite media as "scum of humanity".[180] Lesbian and transvestite associations encouraged respectability in their publications, urged others to keep a low profile in public, and excluded prostitutes from their associations.[181] Working-class lesbians, who often gathered in separate spaces, tended to have less interest in respectability and were more likely to support the Communist Party of Germany (KPD).[182] Cross-dressing male prostitutes and other excluded groups may not have embraced respectability politics, but they have left little trace in the historical record.[176]
Film
In 1919, Hirschfeld collaborated with Richard Oswald on the film Different from the Others, the first German feature film to cover homosexuality. Featuring actors Conrad Veidt, Reinhold Schünzel, and Anita Berber, it portrayed a successful violinist who committed suicide after being blackmailed. The film was widely viewed and positively evaluated by critics, generating immense discussion.[183][184][185] Some viewers perceived the violinist as embodying negative stereotypes of effeminate and limp-wristed homosexuals. His ambiguous relationship with his younger student fanned fears of homosexual seduction.[186] Screenings of the film were disrupted by morality campaigners, nationalists, and Freikorps.[187][188] Partly in response to Different from the Others, film censorship was reinstated in 1920 and the film was banned.[189][190][184]
Political activism
The homosexual movement was part of a broad coalition of sexual reformers along with feminists, and was generally backed by the SPD and the KPD, who supported an approach to sexuality that was based on rationality rather than religion. This coalition was opposed by the
Different strategies
On 1 July 1919, Hirschfeld opened the
Hirschfeld's collaborator,
After 1923, the BfM increasingly distanced itself from the WhK; Radszuweit was a critic of Hirschfeld's theory of intersexuality.[206] The BfM encouraged its members to come out to friends, family, or coworkers to increase public acceptance of homosexuality.[207] The BfM officially backed the SPD but welcomed homosexuals of any political affiliation. Although the majority of its members supported either the SPD or KPD—which shared the SPD's commitment to repealing Paragraph 175—others, especially from the middle and upper classes, backed right-wing parties.[201][156] The BfM also lobbied on behalf of its members, sending brochures to parliamentarians, ministers, judges, and even President Paul von Hindenburg; in 1924 it sent more than 200,000 pamphlets.[208][209] Brand and his GdE continued to exist after World War I, but the masculinists were increasingly sidelined. They rejected the values of the German revolution, and their anti-feminist attitudes and refusal to make alliances with other groups calling for sex reform alienated others.[210] Hirschfeld, Radszuweit, and others considered them a liability because of their conflation of homosexuality and pederasty.[211][56]
Paragraph 175 reform
In the aftermath of the German revolution, many homosexual activists expected that Paragraph 175 would soon be repealed.[212] Initially, the WhK sought unity within the movement and in 1920 was cooperating with both the DFV and the GdE under the name "Action Committee for the Elimination of Paragraph 175".[213][214][215] These efforts fell through.[216] Both Hirschfeld[115][217] and Hiller later blamed the movement's failures partly on the lack of solidarity and other qualities necessary for successful political organizing among homosexuals.[214] The WhK continued to solicit the signatures of prominent Germans for its petition to abolish Paragraph 175, adding 6,000 in 1921 alone.[88][218] President Friedrich Ebert pledged his support for the repeal effort.[219] Gustav Radbruch, who served as justice minister for the SPD from 1921 to 1922 and again in 1923, wanted to rewrite the criminal code in "the spirit of modern criminological thinking" and proposed a new criminal code without Paragraph 175. Economic problems and the issue of World War I reparations prevented reforms.[220][221]
The repeal effort was also hampered by divisions within the movement: the WhK and the BfM did not agree on the issues of age of consent and male prostitution.[222] The WhK held that the age of consent should be sixteen, the same as heterosexual relationships. Hirschfeld also opposed the criminalization of male prostitution, instead advocating that its economic causes be addressed. Female prostitution was legalized in 1927, and it was feared that cracking down on male prostitution would lead to police raids on gay bars and meeting places.[223] The WhK worked with other sex reformers to produce a new draft of the penal code, largely written by Hiller and published in 1927, that eliminated Paragraph 175 and also reformed provisions dealing with abortion, rape, seduction, incest, and child molestation.[224][225] Only the KPD supported this proposal in its entirety.[226] While Brand and the GdE disagreed with Hiller's proposal and instead preferred to abolish the age of consent,[227] the BfM held the opposite position, opposing male prostitution and supporting a higher age of consent of eighteen years.[228][229] Radszuweit endorsed homophobic ideas (namely that male adolescents could be seduced into homosexuality) in the hopes of placating conservatives.[230]
The left-wing victory in the
Decline and aftermath
The homosexual movement waned after 1929.[242][243] Despite its initial optimism in the aftermath of the German revolution, the main goal—decriminalization—was not achieved, and the failure fueled infighting.[242][244] The BfM's membership, hard-hit by the Great Depression, lost enthusiasm; funding for reform efforts also dried up due to economic deprivation.[245][243] By the end of the year, Hirschfeld resigned from the WhK leadership after more than thirty years after losing the support of Linsert and Hiller, who argued that the strategy of using science for reform was a dead end.[246][247] Hirschfeld received the most criticism because his approach had not proven successful, but Radszuweit was equally ineffective at persuading stakeholders or German society at large that homosexuals were not a threat to youth.[248]
The resurgence of conservative and far-right forces and the
The first homosexual movement's infrastructure of bars, clubs, associations, and publications was shut down in March 1933, shortly after the Nazi seizure of power. The previous month, a Reich decree had ordered the closing of all homosexual establishments and seizure of all publications.
The WhK voted to dissolve itself on 8 June. Many homosexual organizations attempted to destroy membership lists and other information that the Nazis could use to target dissidents, and activists made agreements to keep quiet about their activities to protect their former members.[260] Catholic and Protestant churches praised the Nazis' anti-gay crackdown.[261] In twelve years, 50,000 men were convicted under Paragraph 175 and thousands were imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps. The persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany is considered the most severe persecution of homosexual men in history.[262][263]
Legacy
Attempts to revive the pre-Nazi homosexual rights movements after World War II were unsuccessful. Many of the Weimar-era activists were no longer alive, and the task of advancing LGBT rights in Germany was taken up by younger men and women.[264] The first homosexual movement, in particular Hirschfeld, did influence later movements for LGBT rights.[265][266] In a reaction to the introduction of an anti-homosexual law in 1911, the Nederlandsch Wetenschappelijk Humanitair Komitee was founded on the model of the German WhK.[266] The first homosexual movement invented the concept of biologically based homosexuality and developed tactics deployed by later activists, such as the assertion of respectable citizenship. Later activists had to deal with similar dilemmas such as compromising over claims to public space.[265] The human rights discourse, the idea of homosexuals as a minority group, and the analogy of homophobic discrimination to racism have all been adopted by LGBT rights movements after 1945 and remain in use to this day.[267][268] This model has proven effective in obtaining recognition of LGBT rights.[269]
The Weimar Republic has held enduring interest for many LGBT people as a brief interlude in which gay men, lesbians, and transvestites took advantage of unprecedented freedoms.
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- ^ Pretzel 2012, pp. 210–211.
- ^ Pretzel 2012, pp. 211–212.
- ^ Whisnant 2016, p. 201.
- ^ Marhoefer 2015, pp. 170–171.
- ^ Crouthamel 2011, pp. 124–125.
- ^ Samper 2020, p. 160.
- ^ Samper 2020, pp. 160–161.
- ^ a b Whisnant 2016, pp. 209–210.
- ^ Marhoefer 2015, pp. 174–175.
- ^ Whisnant 2016, p. 210.
- ^ Marhoefer 2015, pp. 175–176.
- ^ Zinn 2020, p. 13.
- ^ Marhoefer 2015, pp. 155, 173.
- ^ Whisnant 2016, pp. 246–247.
- ^ a b Marhoefer 2015, p. 7.
- ^ a b Beachy 2010, p. 836.
- ^ Marhoefer 2019, pp. 7–9.
- ^ Tobin 2015, p. 230.
- ^ Tobin 2015, pp. 235–236.
- ^ Marhoefer 2015, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Marhoefer 2015, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Whisnant 2016, p. 200.
- ^ Marhoefer 2015, p. 217.
- ^ Marhoefer 2015, p. 214.
- ^ Siegessäule 2017.
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