Great Renunciation
The Great Renunciation or Great Departure (mahābhinikmana
According to these accounts, at the birth of Prince Siddhārtha Gautama, the Buddha-to-be, Brahmanas predicted that he would either become a world teacher or a world ruler. To prevent his son from turning to religious life, Prince Siddhārtha's father and
The story of Prince Siddhārtha's renunciation illustrates the conflict between lay duties and religious life, and shows how even the most pleasurable lives are still filled with suffering. Prince Siddhārtha was moved with
The double prediction which occurred shortly after the prince's birth point at two natures within Prince Siddhārtha's person: the struggling human who worked to attain
Sources
Translations of Great Renunciation | |
---|---|
Sanskrit | Abhiniṣkramaṇa, Mahābhiniṣkramaṇa |
Pali | Abhinikkhamaṇa |
Chinese | 出家[2] (Pinyin: chūjiā) |
Thai | มหาภิเนษกรมณ์ (RTGS: Mahaphinetsakrom) |
Glossary of Buddhism |
Several Early Buddhist Texts such as the Ariyapariyasenā Sutta and the Mahāsaccaka Sutta, as well as sections in the texts on
Sinhalese commentators have composed the
Besides textual sources, information about basic elements of the life of the Buddha can be obtained from early Buddhist art, which is often much older than biographical sources. These artistic depictions were produced in a time when there was no continuous written account of the life of the Buddha available yet.[12]
Accounts
In Buddhist
Birth and early youth
Traditional
The four sights
When Prince Siddhārtha was 16, he married
Some time later, Prince Siddhārtha heard the news that a son had been born to him.
Discontentment
After having taken a bath and having been adorned by a barber who was a deity in disguise, Prince Siddhārtha returned to the palace. Foucher describes this as follows:
Marvelous power of a word, which as a crystal dropped in a saturated solution produces crystallization, gave form to all his aspirations still vague and scattered. At that moment, he spontaneously discovered the goal towards his life had turned.[53]
In some versions of the story, he therefore rewarded the woman for her song with a string of pearls. Before Prince Siddhārtha decided to leave the palace, in the morally oriented Lalitavistara he is seen asking his father whether he could leave the city and retire to the forest, but his father said his son that he would give anything for him to stay. Then the prince asked his father whether he could prevent him from growing old, becoming sick or die: the rāja answered he could not.
Leaving the palace
Moved by all the things he had experienced, the prince decided to leave the palace behind in the middle of the night against his father's will, to live the life of an wandering ascetic,[63] leaving behind his son and wife Yaśodharā.[64] Just before he left the palace for the spiritual life, he took one look at his wife Yaśodharā and his newborn child. Fearing his resolve might waver, he resisted to pick up his son and left the palace as planned.[65][66] Some versions of the story say that deities caused the royal family to fall into a slumber, to help the prince escape the palace.[67][56] Because of this, Chandaka and Kaṇṭhaka tried to wake up the royal family, but unsuccessfully.[56] Nevertheless, in some accounts the prince is seen taking leave from his father in a respectful manner, while the latter slept.[58][56] Finally, Chandaka and Kaṇṭhaka both protest against the prince's departure, but the prince went on anyway.[68]
Having finally left the palace, the prince looked back at it once more and took a vow that he would not return until he had attained enlightenment. The texts continue by relating that Prince Siddhārtha was confronted by
The former prince then continued his journey into the woods, probably in the area of Malla. According to some accounts, he changed his princely clothes into more simple clothes only now, when he met a woodsman or hunter. The former prince then swapped his clothes with the man, who is in some versions identified with the deity Indra in disguise.[79] Scholar of iconography Anna Filigenzi argues that this exchange indicates Gautama's choice to engage in a more "primitive" kind of society, removed from urban life.[80] Ascetic Gautama then traveled via the Uttarāpatha (Northern Route) passing Rājagṛha, present-day Rajgir.[81] There Gautama met king Bimbisāra, who was much impressed by his demeanor. The king sent a retainer to offer a share to his kingdom, or according to some sources, a position as a minister. The prince refused, however, but promised to return later after his enlightenment.[82]
Meanwhile, when the royal family realized their son and prince was gone, they suffered from the loss. But they were able to deal with it partly by raising grandson Rāhula. As for the prince's jewels, the queen discarded those in a pond to forget the loss.[83]
Discrepancies
Pali sources state that the renunciation happened on the full moon day of
Other
In Buddhist doctrine
The Great Renunciation functions as a "founding story" of Buddhism.
The Buddha's motivation is described as a form of
Generally, Buddhists regard the marriage between Prince Siddhārtha and Princess Yaśodharā as a good one, and the prince as an example of
The Great Renunciation is not only a part of the biography of Gautama Buddha, but is a pattern that can be found in the life of every single Buddha, part of a pre-established blueprint that each Buddha must follow.[108][109]
Scholarly analysis
Historical
Only a little information is given in the texts and discourses about the early life of the Buddha, which contrasts with the abundance of traditional sources about the rest his life, from enlightenment to Parinirvana. Bareau speculated that this may be because the Buddha was disinclined to talk about it, either out of modesty, or because he—and also his leading disciples— did not consider that relating his secular life was sufficiently edifying, as opposed to his religious life.[110] Furthermore, since the accounts about the Buddha's life are filled with mythological embellishments, it may be not be possible to know the exact history, though the accounts are clearly based around historical events.[111]
The site of Siddhārtha Gautama's birth, Kapilavastu, is considered likely to have been historically genuine,[112] though not as commercially important as depicted in later texts.[113] It was an oligarchy or republic, led by a council with alternating rājas, which at the time of Siddhārtha Gautama's birth was Śuddhodana.[114] Śuddhodana was a large landowner belonging to the nobility, and was likely to have had "considerable speaking ability and persuasive powers", which his son Siddhārtha may have inherited.[115] Siddhārtha Gautama was probably born in a wealthy and aristocratic family. Indologist A.K. Warder believed that Siddhārtha Gautama's three palaces were historical, but "... conventional luxury for a wealthy person of the time, whether a warrior or a merchant".[116] However, the palaces were probably houses with multiple levels, not great palaces.[117] Buddhologist André Bareau (1921–1993) argued that the association that is made between the life of the Buddha and that of the cakravartin may have been inspired by the rapid growth of the Maurya Empire in 4th-century BCE India, though it could also be a pre-Buddhist tradition.[118]
Kapilavastu has been identified with both Piprahwā-Ganwārīā, India, and Tilaurākoṭ, Nepal, and scholars are divided as to which site is more likely to have been the historical Kapilavastu.[113][119] During the time of King Ashoka (3rd century BCE), the area was already regarded as the birthplace of the Buddha, judging from the pillar that was erected in Lumbinī, Nepal.[120] With regard to the mentioning of castes in the texts, scholars are in debate as to what extent Kapilavastu was already organized along the lines of the castes of mainland India.[121][122]
Apart from Kapilavastu, nineteen other places featured in the first 29 years of the prince's life were identified by Xuan Zang, who was also a well-known pilgrim. Foucher argued that these places were based on oral recitation traditions surrounding pilgrimages, which now have been lost.[123]
The marriage between Siddhārtha Gautama and Yaśodharā is very likely to be historical. After all, according to Foucher, the monastic and celibate composers of the biographies would have had no good reason to include it if it was not a notable event.
In this way, the texts portray an example of the human confrontation with frailty and mortality; for while these facts are 'known' to us all, a clear realization and acceptance of them often does come as a novel and disturbing insight.[95]
Bareau pointed out that the four sights express the moral shock of confrontation with reality in a legendary form. Moreover, studying Vinaya texts, he found an episode with Prince Siddhārtha as a child, expressing the wish to leave the palace and family life, which Bareau believed was the actual cause for the rāja's concern about his son leaving, rather than the prediction or the four sights. Bareau dated this explanation to the first century after the Buddha or even the Buddha himself (5th century BCE), whereas he dated the four sights and the motif of the blissful youth to the Maurya period (late 4th century BCE) and a century afterwards, respectively. He related these motifs to the association of the Buddha with the cakravartin, which would have made most sense during the rise of the Maurya empire. The connection between deities and previous Buddhas on the one hand, and the four sights on the other hand, Bareau dated to the end of the 3rd century BCE. It was then applied to Gautama Buddha in the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE.[130] Drawing from a theory by philologist Friedrich Weller , Buddhist studies scholar Bhikkhu Anālayo argues, on the other hand, that the four sights might originate in pictorial depictions used in early Buddhism for didactic purposes. These are already mentioned in the early texts and later generations might have taken these depictions literally.[98][131] With regard to the restrictions enforced by Śuddhodana, Schumann said it is probable that the rāja tried to prevent his son from meeting with free-thinking samaṇa and paribbājaka wandering mendicants assembling in nearby parks.[132]
Siddhartha's departure at 29 years old is also seen as historical.
Narrative
The Great Renunciation was partly motivated by the First Meditation under the tree when the prince was still a child. This meditation goes hand-in-hand with a shock at the killing of animals which occurred during the ploughing ceremony. Foucher argues that this account may have been affected by the contempt which Indian intellectuals had for agriculture.[139]
Buddhist studies scholar Kate Crosby argues that Siddhārtha conceiving or giving birth to a son before his renunciation functions as a motif to prove that he is the best at each possible path in life: after having tried the life of a father to the fullest, he decides to leave it behind for a better alternative. In early Buddhist India, being a father and bearing a son was seen as a spiritual and religious path as well as that of renouncing one's family, and Siddhārtha's bringing a son in the world before renunciation proves he is capable of both.[140] Buddhist studies scholar John S. Strong hypothesizes that the Mūlasarvāstivāda and Mahāvastu version of the story of the prince conceiving a child on the eve of his departure was developed to prove that the Buddha was not physically disabled in some way. A disability might have raised doubts about the validity of his ordination in monastic tradition.[141]
The motif of the sleeping harem preceding the renunciation is widely considered by scholars to be modeled on the story of
In his analysis of Indian literature, scholar of religion Graeme Macqueen observes a recurring contrast between the figure of the king and that of the ascetic, who represent external and internal mastery, respectively. This contrast often leads to conflicting roles and aggression in Buddhist stories. In the life of the Buddha, this contrast can be found in the two predictions, in which Prince Siddhārtha will either be a Buddha or an "all-conquering king". Brekke notes that the Buddha chooses to change the self instead of changing the world, as a king would do: he chooses to try to understand the essence of the world and awaken to its truth.
The horse Kaṇṭhaka has an important role in the accounts about the Great Renunciation. Through several motifs, the accounts establish a close relationship between the Buddha's aspiration to bring living beings to enlightenment on the one hand, and the carrying of Prince Siddhārtha by Kaṇṭhaka on the other hand.
In art and ritual
The steps that Prince Siddhārtha goes through when
Many Buddhists celebrate the Great Renunciation on Vaiśākha,[169] but in China, the event is celebrated on the 8th day of the second month of the Chinese calendar, in the same month the Buddha's passing into final Nirvana is celebrated.[170]
In literature worldwide
Medieval
A version of the life story of the Buddha was incorporated in the work of the
"And how can this world avoid being full of sorrow and complaint? There is nobody on earth who can rejoice in his children or his treasures without constantly worrying about them as well. Sorrow and heartache are brought on by the anticipation of impending evils, the onset of sickness or accidental injuries, or else the coming of death itself upon a man's head. The sweetness of self-indulgence turns into bitterness. Delights are rapidly succeeded by depression, from which there is no escape."
—The Balavariani (Barlaam and Josaphat), Lang (1966, p. 57), cited in Almond (1987, p. 399)
The Christian story of Barlaam and Josaphat starts out very similar to the story of Prince Siddhārtha, but the birth of the prince is preceded by a discussion between his father, the Indian king Abenner, and a nobleman turned Christian ascetic. In this conversation, the ascetic points at the limitations of the worldly life, in which no real satisfaction can be found. After the birth of the prince Josaphat, the double prediction of his possible future, his growing up in a protected environment, and the first three of the four sights, he enters upon a personal crisis. Then he meets with the Ceylonese sage Barlaam, who introduces him to the Christian faith. The king attempts at first to fool his young son in understanding that Barlaam has lost a debate with people in the court, but to no avail. Next, he sends women to tempt the prince, but again, unsuccessfully: Josaphat wishes to renounce the worldly life and become an ascetic. The king manages to persuade his son to stay, however, by giving him half of his kingdom. Accepting the offer, King Josaphat becomes a good king and his Christian kingdom prospers more than that of his father, who eventually converts. After the death of his father, however, Josaphat gives up the throne to become an ascetic as he originally intended, and spends the final years of his life with Barlaam in Ceylon.[175]
It would take up until 1859 before well-known Western translators and scholars realized that the story was derived from the life of the Buddha, although the similarities had been noticed before by a less well-known Venetian editor and Portuguese traveler in the 15th and 16th centuries, respectively.[176] Although the story has been passed on through different languages and countries, some basic tenets of Buddhism can still be found in it: the nature of duḥkha in life as expressed in the opening dialogue between the nobleman and the king; the cause of suffering being desire; the path of self-analysis and self-control which follows this realization, and there are even some hints that point at ideals similar to the Buddhist Nirvana.[177]
Modern
The legend of Barlaam and Josaphat affected Western literature up until early modern times:
Borges was greatly influenced by the story of the renunciation of the Buddha, and wrote several essays and a book about it. The emphasis on plot above character, and the aspects of epiphany and destiny appealed to him, as well as the adaptable and
Borges saw in the Great Renunciation the anti-thesis for the
Not only the original story of Prince Siddhārtha influenced modern writers. The derived story of Barlaam and Josaphat has much influenced the Russian writer Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910). Indeed, he went through a renunciation himself in the middle of his life, inspired by the story.[173]
In popular culture
A more recent interpretation is the 2011 anime Buddha: The Great Departure (Japanese: 手塚治虫のブッダ赤い砂漠よ!美しく, romanized: Buddha 2: Tezuka Osamu no Buddha) by film maker Yasuomi Ishitō. This is the first installment of a trilogy of animes based on the first three volumes out of Osamu Tezuka's 14-volume manga series Buddha. The movie covers familiar elements such as the protected upbringing and the prince's disillusionment with the world, as it deals with the first fifteen years of the prince's life.[187] Prince Siddhārta is depicted as a sensitive person, who is motivated to renounce his life in the palace because of the horrors of war. The movie also addresses the philosophical themes that Prince Siddhārtha struggles with, that is, the suffering of old age, sickness and death and how to transcend this.[188]
See also
Notes
- ^ Although Buddhist studies scholar Hubert Durt preferred 'Sūtra on the Collected Original Activities of the Buddha'.[9]
- ^ In some versions, 60 Brahmins study the dreams,[16] and 108 Brahmins are invited to name the child.[17] Also, the response of Asita to the child sometimes precedes and spurs the decision to invite the Brahmins.[18]
- ^ In some versions, however, the meditation at the Jambu tree is placed much later in the story.[26][27]
- ^ Most textual traditions agree that the prince was 29 years old during his renunciation. Some Chinese translations mention 19 years, however.[33]
- ^ According to some traditional sources, Prince Siddhārtha was still sixteen then.[41] But some sources say that Rāhula was born seven days before the prince left the palace.[42][24]
- previous Buddhas were given similar names, related to constellations.[46]
- ^ Kisā was called Mṛgajā in the Mulasarvāstivāda version of the story, and Mṛgī in the Mahāvastu version.[50] In some accounts, she became the prince's wife just before he left.[51] This Kisā is not to be confused with the Kisā Gotami who would later become a disciple after the prince had become the Buddha.
- Mahīśāsaka and the Dharmaguptaka, mention no attendant escorting the prince.[71]
- ^ Foucher has even suggested that the depiction of the four sights might have affected ancient art in other parts of the world, raising the example of frescoes from the Camposanto Monumentale di Pisa. These frescoes show young men discovering corpses in coffins.[150]
- ^ But already in the 1930s, this custom was being replaced by riding in a car or cart.[165]
Citations
- ^ https://www.nypl.org/sites/default/files/week_3_obeyesekere_2009_yasodhara_the_wife_of_the_bodhisattva.pdf
- ^ Albery 2017, p. 360.
- ^ See Bechert (2004, p. 85), Deeg (2010, pp. 51–52) and Sarao (2017, Biography of the Buddha and Early Buddhism). Sarao mentions the early discourses; Deeg mentions the monastic discipline.
- ^ a b Luczanits 2010, p. 50, note 48.
- ^ a b Bechert 2004, p. 85.
- ^ a b Deeg 2010, p. 52.
- ^ Tanabe 2018, p. 427.
- ^ Harvey 2013.
- ^ a b Durt 2004, p. 56.
- ^ See Crosby (2014, pp. 29–31) and Strong (2015, Past Buddhas and the Biographical Blueprint, table 2.2.). Strong mentions the scope.
- ^ Crosby 2014, p. 30.
- ^ Deeg 2010, pp. 50–51.
- ^ Tanabe 2018, p. 426.
- ^ Strong 2001, Lifestories and Buddhology: The Development of a Buddha-Life Blueprint.
- ^ See Malalasekera (1960, Vol. 1, Gotama), Bridgwater (2000) and Sarao (2017, p. 186). Sarao mentions the auspicious characteristics and Malalasekera mentions the eight Brahmins. For the natural mother's dreams and Asita, see Smart (1997, p. 276). For the father's dreams, see Mayer (2004, p. 238).
- ^ Penner 2009, p. 22.
- ^ Irons 2008, p. 280, Kaundinya.
- ^ Collins 1998, p. 393.
- ^ See Lopez, D.S. (12 July 2019). "Buddha – Biography & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 16 July 2019 and Strong (2015, Birth and Childhood). Strong mentions Asita's single prediction.
- ^ Tyle 2003.
- ^ a b Malalasekera 1960, Vol. 1, Gotama.
- ^ Bechert 2004, pp. 83, 85.
- ^ See Lopez, D.S. (12 July 2019). "Buddha – Biography & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 16 July 2019 and Penner (2009, p. 24). For the attendants, see Penner.
- ^ a b c d e f Sarao 2017, Biography of the Buddha and Early Buddhism.
- ^ a b Strong 2015, The Beginnings of Discontent.
- ^ Thomas 1951, p. 136.
- ^ Foucher 2003, p. 68.
- ^ Smart 1997, p. 276.
- ^ Penner 2009, p. 23.
- ^ Strong 2015.
- ^ a b Strong 2001, Upbringing in the Palace.
- ^ Harvey 2013, p. 17.
- ^ Albery 2017, pp. 370–371, note 28.
- ^ See Penner (2009, pp. 24–27) and Hiltebeitel (2011, p. 632). Hiltebeitel mentions that the fourth sign was not brought about by deities, though Lopez & McCracken (2014, p. 24) refer to accounts that do describe the ascetic as a disguised deity.
- ^ Lopez & McCracken 2014, p. 21.
- ^ Penner 2009, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Warder 2000, p. 322.
- ^ Bareau 1974, p. 243.
- ^ For the hope and the relation with duḥkha, see Strong (2015, The Beginnings of Discontent). For the non-violence, see Warder (2000, p. 322).
- ^ Penner 2009, pp. 26.
- ^ Keown 2004, p. 267.
- ^ Malalasekera 1960, Rāhulamātā.
- ^ Powers 2013, Rāhula.
- ^ a b Saddhasena 2003, p. 481.
- ^ Irons 2008, p. 400, Rahula.
- ^ a b Rahula 1978, p. 136.
- ^ a b Malalasekera 1960, Rāhula.
- ^ Crosby 2013, p. 105.
- ^ Thomas 1931, p. 53.
- ^ Strong 2001, p. 206.
- ^ Thomas 1931, p. 54 note 1.
- ^ Collins (1998, p. 393). For the double translation, see Strong (2001, Incitements to Leave Home). For the Sanskrit rendering of the word in the song, see Hiltebeitel (2011, p. 644).
- ^ Foucher 2003, p. 73.
- ^ Foucher 2003, pp. 73–74.
- ^ a b Powers 2016, p. 15.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Strong 2001, The Great Departure.
- ^ a b c Strong 2001, Incitements to Leave Home.
- ^ a b c Strong 2015, The Great Departure.
- ^ Rahula 1978, p. 242.
- ^ See Schober (2004, p. 45) and Strong (2001, Incitements to Leave Home). Strong mentions the nature of the body.
- ^ Beal 1875, pp. 128–129.
- ^ Jones 1952, p. 131.
- ^ Reynolds & Hallisey (1987) mention that it was against his father's will. Smart (1997, p. 276) mentions the time.
- ^ Bridgwater 2000.
- ^ Penner 2009, p. 27.
- ^ Collins 1998, p. 394.
- ^ Ohnuma 2016, Kanthaka in the Great Departure.
- ^ Foucher 2003, p. 76.
- ^ Skilling 2008, pp. 106–107.
- ^ See Strong (2001, The Great Departure). For the city goddess, see Foucher (2003, p. 77).
- ^ Pons 2014, p. 29.
- ^ Strong (2001, The Great Renunciation). For the three kingdoms, see Thomas (1951, p. 137).
- ^ Penner 2009, p. 28.
- ^ Penner 2009, p. 154.
- ^ Foucher 2003, p. 78.
- ^ a b c d Ohnuma 2016.
- ^ Keown 2004, p. 137, Kanthaka.
- ^ Ohnuma 2016, Kanthaka as the Buddha's Scapegoat.
- ^ See Powers (2016, p. 15) and Strong (2015, The Great Departure). For Malla, see Schumann (1982, p. 45). For Indra, see Rahula (1978, p. 246).
- ^ Filigenzi 2005, pp. 106–107.
- ^ Hirakawa 1990, p. 24.
- ^ See Strong (2001, The Great Departure) and Strong (2015, The Great Departure). The 2001 work mentions the promise. For the retainer and the position, see Hirakawa (1990, p. 25).
- ^ Foucher 2003, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Albery 2017, pp. 360–361.
- ^ Albery 2017, pp. 370–371 note 28.
- ^ See Buswell & Lopez (2013, Rāhula) and Strong (2001, The Great Renunciation). For the Mahāvastu, see Lopez & McCracken (2014, p. 31).
- ^ Meeks 2016, pp. 139–40.
- ^ Sasson & Law 2008, p. 69.
- ^ Strong 1997, p. 119.
- ^ Weber 1958, p. 204.
- ^ a b Maxwell 2004, p. 90.
- ^ Strong 2001, The Making of a Monk.
- ^ Baroni 2002, p. 118, The Great Renunciation.
- ^ For the "good", see Smart (1997) and Hirakawa (1990, p. 24). For the state beyond death, see Blum (2004, p. 203).
- ^ a b c Harvey 2013, p. 18.
- ^ Strong 2015, The Middle Way.
- ^ Brekke 2005, p. 82.
- ^ a b c d Analayo 2017, The Motivation to Go Forth.
- ^ Schumann 1982, p. 44.
- ^ Foucher 2003, p. 67.
- ^ Armstrong 2001, Ch.1.
- ^ Brekke 1999, p. 857.
- ^ Gwynne 2018, pp. 167–168.
- ^ Jestice 2004, p. 193, Compassion and Holy People.
- ^ Shaw 2013, p. 460.
- ^ Jones 1949, p. 189.
- ^ Shaw 2013, pp. 460–461.
- ^ Woodward 1997, pp. 50–51.
- ^ Strong 2015, Past Buddhas and the Biographical Blueprint.
- ^ Bareau 1974, p. 267.
- ^ Harvey 2013, p. 15.
- ^ a b Smart 1997, p. 277.
- ^ a b Sarao 2019.
- ^ See Gombrich (2006, p. 50). For the alternation, see Hirakawa (1990, p. 21). For the fact that Śuddhodana was the current rāja, see Schumann (1982, p. 6).
- ^ For being a landowner and noble, see Foucher (2003, pp. 52–53). For the quote, see Schumann (1982, p. 18).
- ^ See Warder (2000, p. 45) and Foucher (2003, p. 64). For the quote, see Warder. Foucher explains that three palaces, each for a different season, were not uncommon for the rich at that time, because the weather in the three seasons was so extremely different.
- ^ Wynne (2015, p. 14). For the multiple levels, see Schumann (1982, p. 21).
- ^ Bareau 1974, p. 213.
- ^ Schumann 1982, pp. 14–17.
- ^ a b Bechert 2004, p. 83.
- ^ Harvey 2013, p. 14.
- ^ a b Strong 2015, The Buddha's World.
- ^ Foucher 2003, p. 80, note transl..
- ^ Foucher 2003, p. 60.
- ^ See Bechert (2004, p. 85) and Strong (2015, Past Buddhas and the Biographical Blueprint). Strong mentions the name of the text and the name of the Buddha.
- ^ Reynolds 1976, p. 43.
- ^ For the overcoming of delusion, see Schumann (1982, p. 22) and Analayo (2017, The Motivation to Go Forth). For the conquering, see Eliade (1982, p. 74).
- ^ Bareau 1974, p. 263.
- ^ See Wynne (2015, p. 14) and Analayo (2017, The Motivation to Go Forth). For the quote, see Wynne. For the role of old age, etc., see Analayo.
- ^ Bareau 1974, pp. 238 note 1, 241, 245 note 1, 246, 264.
- ^ Weller 1928, p. 169.
- ^ Schumann 1982, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Wynne 2015, p. 15.
- ^ See Schumann (1982, p. 46), Eliade (1982, p. 74) and Foucher (2003, p. 72).
- ^ Eliade 1982, p. 74.
- ^ Schumann 1982, p. 46.
- ^ Schumann 1982, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Bareau 1974, p. 249.
- ^ Foucher 2003, p. 69.
- ^ Crosby 2013, pp. 108–9.
- ^ See Strong (2001, The Great Departure). For the Mahāvastu, see Lopez & McCracken (2014, pp. 31–32).
- ^ Strong 2001, Further Conversions in Benares: Yasa and his Family.
- ^ Bareau 1974, p. 253.
- ^ Hiltebeitel 2011, pp. 639–641, 643.
- ^ Brekke 1999, pp. 857–859, 861.
- ^ Strong 2015, Birth and Childhood.
- ^ Silk 2003, pp. 869–870, 872–873.
- ^ Thomas 1931, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Norman 1992, pp. 231–232.
- ^ Foucher 2003, p. 71.
- ^ Crosby 2014, p. 17.
- ^ Maxwell 2004.
- ^ Tanabe 2018, pp. 423.
- ^ Arlt & Hiyama 2016, p. 188.
- ^ Hudson, Gutman & Maung 2018, p. 14.
- ^ Pons 2014, p. 17.
- ^ a b Albery 2017, pp. 358–359.
- ^ For the goddess, see Mevissen (2011, p. 96). For the veiled woman, see Filigenzi (2005, p. 105 note 3).
- ^ Pons 2014, p. 41.
- ^ Schober 2004, p. 47.
- ^ Strong 2001, Lifestory and Ritual.
- ^ See Strong (2005, p. 5690) and Strong (2001, Lifestory and Ritual). The 2001 work mentions the relatives and deities.
- ^ Terwiel 2012, p. 102.
- ^ Swearer 2010, p. 55.
- ^ Wells 1939, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Wells 1939, p. 140, note 1.
- ^ Strong 2001, Lifestory and Ritual; Incitements to Leave Home.
- ^ Schober 1997, pp. 261–262.
- ^ Keown 2004, p. 335, Wesak.
- ^ Barber 2005, p. 68.
- ^ Crosby 2014, p. 101.
- ^ For the influence of Bābūya's version, see Crosby (2014, p. 101) and Mershman (1907). For the way through which the story was passed down, see Almond (1987, p. 406).
- ^ a b c d Almond 1987, p. 391.
- ^ Jullien 2019, p. 5.
- ^ Almond 1987, pp. 392–393, 397.
- ^ Almond 1987, pp. 395–396.
- ^ Almond 1987, pp. 395–396, 398–400.
- ^ Jullien 2019, p. xix.
- ^ Stenerson 1991, p. 392.
- ^ See Jullien (2019, p. xix). For the miracles, see Franklin (2008, p. 32).
- ^ Franklin 2008, pp. 40, 42–43, 46, 48–49, quote is on page 49.
- ^ Stenerson 1991, p. 396 ff..
- ^ Jullien 2019, passim.
- ^ Jullien 2019, pp. xiii–xiv, xi–xii, xix.
- ^ Jullien 2019, pp. xxi, 2, 6–7, 14–15.
- ^ Jullien 2019, pp. 99–100.
- ^ For the disillusionment and the fifteen years, see Cabrera, David (12 July 2011). "Buddha: The Great Departure". Anime News Network. Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. For the three volumes, see Gray, Richard (14 December 2011). "JFF15 Review: Buddha – The Great Departure". The Reel Bits. Archived from the original on 1 June 2019.
- ^ v.d. Ven, Frank. "Osamu Tezukas Buddha - The Great Departure - Tezuka Osamu no Buddha - Akai sabakuyo utsukushiku (2011) recensie" [review]. Cinemagazine (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 14 April 2015.
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