HMS Temeraire (1798)
The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last berth to be broken up, 1838 by J. M. W. Turner , 1838
| |
History | |
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Great Britain | |
Name | HMS Temeraire |
Ordered | 9 December 1790 |
Builder | Chatham Dockyard |
Laid down | July 1793 |
Launched | 11 September 1798 |
Reclassified |
|
Fate | Broken up in 1838 |
General characteristics [1] | |
Class and type | Neptune-class ship of the line |
Tons burthen | 2,12058⁄94 (bm) |
Length |
|
Beam | 51 ft 2 in (15.60 m) |
Depth of hold | 21 ft 6 in (6.55 m) |
Sail plan | Full-rigged ship |
Complement | 738 |
Armament |
|
HMS Temeraire was a 98-gun second-rate ship of the line of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy. Launched in 1798, she served during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, mostly on blockades or convoy escort duties. She fought only one fleet action, the Battle of Trafalgar, but became so well known for that action and her subsequent depictions in art and literature that she has been remembered as The Fighting Temeraire.
Built at
After undergoing substantial repairs, Temeraire was employed blockading the French fleets and supporting British operations off the Spanish coasts. She went out to the
This final voyage was depicted in a J. M. W. Turner oil painting greeted with critical acclaim, entitled The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken up, 1838.[2] The painting continues to be held in high regard: it was voted Britain's favourite painting in a BBC radio poll in 2005[3] and it appears briefly in the James Bond movie Skyfall.[4] A reproduction of the painting appears on the back of the Bank of England £20 note issued in 2020.
Construction and commissioning
Temeraire was ordered from Chatham Dockyard on 9 December 1790, to a design developed by Surveyor of the Navy Sir John Henslow.[5][6][7] She was one of three ships of the Neptune class, alongside her sisters HMS Neptune and HMS Dreadnought.[5][a]
She was primarily made from English
She was commissioned on 21 March 1799 under Captain Peter Puget, becoming the second ship of the Royal Navy to bear the name Temeraire.[5][6] Her predecessor had been the 74-gun third-rate HMS Temeraire, a former French ship taken as a prize at the Battle of Lagos on 19 August 1759 by a fleet under Admiral Edward Boscawen.[6][9][b] Puget was in command only until 26 July 1799, during which time he oversaw the process of fitting the new Temeraire for sea. He was superseded by Captain Thomas Eyles on 27 July 1799, while the vessel was anchored off St Helens, Isle of Wight.[10]
With the Channel Fleet
Under Eyles's command Temeraire finally put to sea at the end of July,
Lord Bridport had been replaced as commander of the Channel Fleet by Admiral
Mutiny
On the morning of 3 December, a small group of sailors gathered on the
Alarmed by the actions of Temeraire's crew, Campbell met with Vice-Admiral
News of the mutiny created a sensation in England, and the Admiralty ordered Temeraire to sail immediately for
West Indies and the peace
After the executions, Temeraire was immediately sent to sea, sailing from Portsmouth for the
Return to service
The peace of Amiens was a brief interlude in the wars with Revolutionary France, and in 1803 the War of the Third Coalition began. Temeraire had deteriorated substantially during her long period spent laid up, and she was taken into dry dock on 22 May to repair and refit, starting with the replacement of her copper sheathing.[10][23] Work was delayed when a heavy storm hit Plymouth in January 1804, causing appreciable damage to Temeraire, but was finally completed by February 1804, at a cost of £16,898.[5][10]
Command was assigned to Captain Eliab Harvey, and he arrived to take up his commission on 1 January 1804. The crew were largely from Liverpool. They left Cawsand Bay on 11 March 1804, sailing to join the Channel Fleet off Brest, still under the overall command of Admiral Cornwallis.[5][24]
As a much forgotten part of history, Napoleon had assembled his Grand Army, 160,000 men, near
Temeraire now resumed her previous duties blockading the French at Brest, patrolling between
Collingwood replaced Calder on the Temeraire in August 1804.[29]
The ship sheltered with the Channel Fleet at
Command returned to Calder again on 16 August 1805 and headed for
Battle of Trafalgar
Temeraire duly received orders to join the Cadiz blockade, and having sailed to rendezvous with Collingwood, Harvey awaited Nelson's arrival. Nelson's flagship, the 100-gun HMS Victory, arrived off Cadiz on 28 September, and he took over command of the fleet from Collingwood.[32] He spent the next few weeks forming his plan of attack in preparation for the expected sortie of the Franco-Spanish fleet, issuing it to his captains on 9 October in the form of a memorandum.[32] The memorandum called for two divisions of ships to attack at right angles to the enemy line, severing its van from the centre and rear. A third advance squadron would be deployed as a reserve, with the ability to join one of the lines as the course of the battle dictated. Nelson placed the largest and most powerful ships at the heads of the lines, with Temeraire assigned to lead Nelson's own column into battle.[32][33] The fleet patrolled a considerable distance from the Spanish coast to lure the combined fleet out, and the ships took the opportunity to exercise and prepare for the coming battle. For Temeraire this probably involved painting her sides in the Nelson Chequer design, to enable the British ships to tell friend from foe in the confusion of battle.[32]
The combined Franco-Spanish fleet left Cadiz and put to sea on 19 October 1805, and by 21 October was in sight of the British ships. Nelson formed up his lines and the British began to converge on their distant opponents. Contrary to his original instructions, Nelson took the lead of the weather column in Victory. Concerned for the commander-in-chief's safety in such an exposed position, Henry Blackwood, a long-standing friend of Nelson and commander of the frigate HMS Euryalus that day, suggested Nelson come aboard his ship to better observe and direct the battle. Nelson refused, so Blackwood instead tried to convince him to let Harvey come past him in the Temeraire, and so lead the column into battle.[33][34] Nelson agreed to this, and signalled for Harvey to come past him. As Temeraire drew up towards Victory, Nelson decided that if he was standing aside to let another ship lead his line, so too should Collingwood, commanding the lee column of ships.[35] He signalled Collingwood, aboard his flagship HMS Royal Sovereign, to let another ship come ahead of him, but Collingwood continued to surge ahead. Reconsidering his plan, Nelson is reported to have hailed Temeraire, as she came up alongside Victory, with the words "I'll thank you, Captain Harvey, to keep in your proper station, which is astern of the Victory."[36] Nelson's instruction was followed up by a formal signal and Harvey dropped back reluctantly, but otherwise kept within one ship's length of Victory as she sailed up to the Franco-Spanish line.[37]
Closely following Victory as she passed through the Franco-Spanish line across the bows of the French flagship
Temeraire and Redoutable
Temeraire then rammed into Redoutable, dismounting many of the French ship's guns, and worked her way alongside, after which her crew lashed the two ships together.[41] Temeraire now poured continuous broadsides into the French ship, taking fire as she did so from the 112-gun Spanish ship Santa Ana lying off her stern, and from the 74-gun French ship Fougueux, which came up on Temeraire's un-engaged starboard side.[42] Harvey ordered his gun crews to hold fire until Fougueux came within point blank range. Temeraire's first broadside against Fougueux at a range of 100 yards (91 m) caused considerable damage to the Frenchman's rigging, and she drifted into Temeraire, whose crew promptly lashed her to the side.[43] Temeraire was now lying between two French 74-gun ships. As Harvey later recalled in a letter to his wife "Perhaps never was a ship so circumstanced as mine, to have for more than three hours two of the enemy's line of battle ships lashed to her."[42] Redoutable, sandwiched between Victory and Temeraire, suffered heavy casualties, reported by Captain Lucas as amounting to 300 dead and 222 wounded. During the fight grenades thrown from the decks and topmasts of Redoutable killed and wounded a number of Temeraire's crew and set her starboard rigging and foresail on fire. There was a brief pause in the fighting while both sides worked to douse the flames.[44] Temeraire narrowly escaped destruction when a grenade thrown from Redoutable exploded on her maindeck, nearly igniting the after-magazine. Master-At-Arms John Toohig prevented the fire from spreading and saved not only Temeraire, but the surrounding ships, which would have been caught in the explosion.[44]
After twenty minutes' fighting both Victory and Temeraire, Redoutable had been reduced to a floating wreck.[45][d] Temeraire had also suffered heavily, damaged when Redoutable's main mast fell onto her poop deck, and having had her own topmasts shot away.[e] Informed that his ship was in danger of sinking, Lucas finally called for quarter to Temeraire. Harvey sent a party across under the second lieutenant, John Wallace, to take charge of the ship.[41][46]
Temeraire and Fougueux
Lashed together, Temeraire and Fougueux exchanged fire, Temeraire initially clearing the French ship's upper deck with small arms fire. The French rallied, but the greater height of the three-decked Temeraire compared to the two-decked Fougueux thwarted their attempts to board. Instead Harvey dispatched his own boarding party, led by First-Lieutenant Thomas Fortescue Kennedy, which entered Fougueux via her main deck ports and chains.[42][47] The French tried to defend the decks port by port, but were steadily overwhelmed. Fougueux's captain, Louis Alexis Baudoin, had suffered a fatal wound earlier in the fighting, leaving Commander François Bazin in charge. When he learned that nearly all the officers were dead or wounded and that most of the guns were out of action, Bazin surrendered the ship to the boarders.[48][49]
Temeraire had by now fought both French ships to a standstill, at considerable cost to herself. She had sustained casualties of 47 killed and 76 wounded.[47] All her sails and yards had been destroyed, only her lower masts remained, and the rudder head and starboard cathead had been shot away. Eight feet (2.4 m) of her starboard hull was staved in and both quarter galleries had been destroyed.[48] Harvey signalled for a frigate to tow his damaged ship out of the line, and HMS Sirius came up to assist.[50] Before Sirius could make contact, Temeraire came under fire from a counter-attack by the as-yet unengaged van of the combined fleet, led by Rear Admiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley.[50] Harvey ordered the few guns that could be brought to bear fired in response, and the attack was eventually beaten off by fresh British ships arriving on the scene.[50]
Storm
Shortly after the battle had ended, a severe gale struck the area. Several of the captured French and Spanish ships foundered in the rising seas, including both of Temeraire's prizes, Fougueux and Redoutable. Lost in the wrecks were a considerable number of their crews, as well as 47 Temeraire crewmen, serving as prize crews.[51] Temeraire rode out the storm following the battle, sometimes being taken in tow by less damaged ships, sometimes riding at anchor. She took aboard a number of Spanish and French prisoners transferred from other prizes, including some transferred from Euryalus, which was serving as the temporary flagship of Cuthbert Collingwood, who was now in command as Nelson had been killed during the battle. Harvey took the opportunity to go aboard Euryalus and present his account of the battle to Collingwood, and so became the only captain to do so before Collingwood wrote his dispatch about the victory.[51]
Return to England
Temeraire finally put into Gibraltar on 2 November, eleven days after the battle had been fought. After undergoing minor repairs she sailed for England, arriving at Portsmouth on 1 December, three days before Victory passed by carrying Nelson's body.[52] The battle-damaged ships quickly became tourist attractions, and visitors flocked to tour them. Temeraire was particularly popular on her arrival, being the only ship singled out by name in Collingwood's dispatch for her heroic conduct.[53] Collingwood wrote:
A circumstance occurred during the action which so strongly marks the invincible spirit of British seamen, when engaging the enemies of their country, that I cannot resist the pleasure I have in making it known to their Lordships; the Temeraire was boarded by accident; or design, by a French ship on one side, and a Spaniard on the other; the contest was vigorous, but, in the end the combined ensigns were torn from the poop and the British hoisted in their places.[53]
Collingwood's account, probably based largely on Harvey's report in the immediate aftermath of the battle, contained several errors. Temeraire had closely engaged two French ships, rather than a French and a Spanish ship, and had not been boarded by either during the action. Nevertheless, the account was popular and a print was rushed out purporting to show Harvey taking the lead in clearing Temeraire's decks of enemy seamen.[54]
A number of artists visited the newly returned Trafalgar ships, including John Livesay, drawing master at the Royal Naval Academy. Livesay produced several sketches of battle-damaged ships, sending them to Nicholas Pocock to be used for Pocock's large paintings of the battle. Temeraire was one of the ships he sketched.[55] Another visitor to Portsmouth was J. M. W. Turner. It is not known whether he visited Temeraire, though he did go aboard Victory, making preparatory notes and sketches and interviewing sailors who had been in the battle.[56] The story of Temeraire had become firmly ingrained in the public mind, so much so that when the House of Commons passed a vote of thanks to the men who had fought at Trafalgar, only three were specifically named. Nelson, Collingwood, and Harvey of Temeraire.[56]
Mediterranean and Baltic service
The battle-damaged Temeraire was almost immediately dry-docked in Portsmouth to undergo substantial repairs, which eventually lasted sixteen months and cost £25,352.
This service continued until early 1809, when she returned to Britain. By now Britain was heavily involved in the
While on patrol with the 64-gun HMS Ardent and the frigate HMS Melpomene, Temeraire became involved in one of the heaviest Danish gunboat attacks of the war. A party of men from Ardent had been landed on the island of Romsø, but were taken by surprise in a Danish night attack, which saw most of the Ardent men captured.[59] The Melpomene was sent under a flag of truce to negotiate for their release, but on returning from this mission, was becalmed. A flotilla of thirty Danish gunboats then launched an attack, taking advantage of the stranded Melpomene's inability to bring her broadside to bear on them. Melpomene signalled for help to the Temeraire, which immediately dispatched boats to her assistance.[60] They engaged and then drove off the Danish ships, and then helped the Melpomene to safety. She had been heavily damaged and suffered casualties of five killed and twenty-nine wounded.[61] Temeraire's later Baltic service involved being dispatched to observe the Russian fleet at Reval, during which time she made a survey of the island of Nargen.[62] After substantial blockading and convoy escort work, Temeraire was ordered back to Britain as winter arrived, and she arrived in Plymouth in November 1809.[62]
Iberian service
After a period under repair in Plymouth, Temeraire was recommissioned under the command of Captain Edwin H. Chamberlayne in late January 1810.
Temeraire's one brush with the French during this period came on 13 August 1811. Having received orders to sail to Menorca, Spear attempted to tack out of Hyères Bay. As he tried to do so, the wind fell away, leaving Temeraire becalmed and caught in a current which caused her to drift towards land.[64][65] She came under fire from a shore battery on Pointe des Medes, which wounded several of her crew.[66] Her boats were quickly manned, and together with boats sent from the squadron, Temeraire was towed out of range of the French guns.[64][65] She then sailed to Menorca and underwent repairs. During this period an epidemic of yellow fever broke out, infecting nearly the entire crew and killing around a hundred crewmen.[67] Pellew ordered her back to Britain, and health gradually improved as she sailed through the Atlantic.[65]
Retirement
Temeraire arrived in Plymouth on 9 February 1812 and was docked for a survey several weeks later. The survey reported that she was "a well built and strong ship but apparently much decay'd".
Temeraire's service as a prison ship lasted until 1819, at which point she was selected for conversion to a
Sale and disposal
Kennedy received orders from the Admiralty in June 1838 to have Temeraire valued in preparation for her sale out of the service. She fired her guns for the last time on 28 June in celebration of the Coronation of Queen Victoria, and work began on dismantling her on 4 July.[65] Kennedy delegated this task to Captain Sir John Hill, commander of HMS Ocean.[65] Her masts, stores and guns were all removed and her crew paid off, before Temeraire was put up for sale with twelve other ships. She was sold by Dutch auction on 16 August 1838 to John Beatson, a shipbreaker based at Rotherhithe for £5,530.[65][73] Beatson was then faced with the task of transporting the ship 55 miles from Sheerness to Rotherhithe, the largest ship to have attempted this voyage.[65][73] To accomplish this he hired two steam tugs from the Thames Steam Towing Company and employed a Rotherhithe pilot named William Scott and twenty five men to sail her up the Thames, at a cost of £58.[65][f]
Last voyage
The tugs took the
Temeraire was hauled up onto the mud, where she lay as she was slowly broken up.[65] The final voyage was announced in a number of newspapers, and thousands of spectators came to see her towed up the Thames or laid up at Beatson's yard.[75] The shipbreakers undertook a thorough dismantling, removing all the copper sheathing, rudder pintles and gudgeons, copper bolts, nails and other fastenings to be sold back to the Admiralty. The timber was mostly sold to house builders and shipyard owners, though some was retained for working into specialist commemorative furniture.[65]
Legacy
The immediate legacy of Temeraire was the use of the timber taken from her as she was broken up. A gong stand made from Temeraire timber was a wedding present to the future King
Art
Temeraire features in a number of paintings and prints, the earliest commemorating her role in the battle of Trafalgar. She can be seen at least partially in paintings of the battle by
The flag which braved the battle and the breeze,
no longer owns her.[86]
Turner's painting achieved widespread critical acclaim, and accolades from the likes of John Ruskin and William Makepeace Thackeray.[83] It was Turner's particular favourite; he lent it only once and refused to ever do so again. He also refused to sell it at any price, and on his death bequeathed it to the nation.[87] It hangs today in the National Gallery, and in 2005 it was voted the nation's favourite painting in a poll organized by BBC Radio 4's Today programme.[88]
Books
The Temeraire series is a historical fantasy/alternate history written by Naomi Novik. While HMS Temeraire herself is only briefly featured, the ship becomes the namesake of the series' main character, a large black dragon who sees naval and aerial action alongside his British captain. The series takes place in an alternate version of the Napoleonic Wars, in which the various nations of the world fight with air forces made up of manned dragons. HMS Temeraire appears briefly in the ninth and final book.
Poetry and songs
Temeraire became the subject of a number of poems and songs commemorating her life and fate. An early work by James Duff written between 1813 and 1819 referenced her role as a prison ship, and was set to music in 1857 under the title The Brave Old Temeraire.[75] More generally, an anonymous poem entitled The Wooden Walls of Old England appeared in Fraser's Magazine shortly after Temeraire's arrival at Rotherhithe, and lamented the fate of the great sailing warships.[75] Turner's painting created an enduring interest in the story of Temeraire and several poems appeared in the decades following her breaking-up. Gerald Massey wrote The Fighting Temeraire Tugged to Her Last Berth, Herman Melville produced The Temeraire, and Henry Newbolt wrote The Fighting Temeraire, with its closing lines
Now the sunset's breezes shiver,
And she's fading down the river,
But in England's song forever,
She's the Fighting Temeraire.[89]
Notes
a. ^ Sometimes referred to as the Dreadnought class.
b. ^ This Temeraire retained her French name after her capture, and served during the Seven Years' War, before being sold out of the service in 1784.[6]
c. ^ A number of general histories, including Goodwin's The Ships of Trafalgar and Noel Mostert's The Line on the Wind, say all 14 were hanged.[90] Willis studied contemporary records and reports of the court-martial for his The Fighting Temeraire, and says only 12 of the 14 were sentenced to be hanged. Roy and Lesley Adkins offer a third account: twenty mutineers were tried, all were found guilty and eighteen were sentenced to death, and the other two were to receive one hundred and twenty lashes each.[91] They note that at least six were hanged and possibly as many as twelve, the remainder may have had their sentences commuted to transportation.[91]
d. ^ Lucas described the scene on Redoutable:
In less than half an hour our ship had been so fearfully mauled that she looked like little more than a heap of debris. Judging by appearances, no doubt, the Temeraire, now hailed us to surrender and not prolong a useless resistance. My reply was instantly to order some soldiers who were near me to fire back; which they did with great alacrity. At the same moment almost, the main mast of the Redoutable fell on board the English ship. The two topmasts of the Temeraire then came down, falling on board of us. Our whole poop was stove in, helm rudder and stern post all shattered to splinters, all the stern frame, and the decks shot through. All our own guns were either smashed or dismounted by the broadsides of the Victory and the Temeraire ... The hull itself was riddled, shot through from side to side; deck beams were shattered, port lids torn away or knocked to pieces. Four of our six pumps were so damaged as to be useless. The quarter-deck ladders were broken, which rendered communication with the rest of the ship very difficult. Everywhere the decks were strewn with dead men, lying beneath the debris. Out of a crew of 634 men we had 522 hors de combat; of whom 300 were killed and 222 wounded nearly all the officers among them ... The batteries and upper decks were practically abandoned – bare of men and were unable longer to offer any resistance. No one who had not seen the state of Redoutable could ever form an idea of her awful condition. Really I know of nothing on board that had not been hit by shot.[92]
e.
f. ^ The identity of these tugs has been difficult to determine. Winfield names only one tug, Monarch.[5] Goodwin names them as London and Samson, while Willis states they were Sampson and Newcastle.[65][73]
Citations
- ^ Winfield. British Warships in the Age of Sail 1793–1817. pp. 25–6.
- ^ "The Story Behind The Fighting Temeraire | ArtGallery.co.uk". artgallery.co.uk. Retrieved 11 September 2020.
- ^ "BBC - Press Office - The Fighting Temeraire voted the Greatest Painting in Britain". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 11 September 2020.
- ^ Fandino, Daniel (14 May 2019). "Skyfall: The Fighting Temeraire". Journey to the (Wired) West. Retrieved 11 September 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Winfield. British Warships in the Age of Sail 1793–1817. p. 26.
- ^ a b c d e f Goodwin. The Ships of Trafalgar. p. 41.
- ^ Lavery. The Ship of the Line. p. 183.
- ^ Famous Fighters of the Fleet, Edward Fraser, 1904, p. 217
- ^ a b Colledge & Warlow. Ships of the Royal Navy. p. 347.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Goodwin. The Ships of Trafalgar. p. 42.
- ^ a b Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 150.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. pp. 151–56.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 157.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 158.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 160.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 161.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 162.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 164.
- ^ a b Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 167.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 168.
- ^ Famous Fighters of the Fleet, Edward Fraser, 1904, p. 219
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 169.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 175.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 176.
- ^ Famous Fighters of the Fleet, Edward Fraser, 1904, p. 220
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 177.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 179.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 181.
- ^ Famous Fighters of the Fleet, Edward Fraser, 1904, p. 224
- ^ Famous Fighters of the Fleet, Edward Fraser, 1904, p. 225-7
- ^ Famous Fighters of the Fleet, Edward Fraser, 1904, p. 228
- ^ a b c d Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 182.
- ^ a b Clayton & Craig. Trafalgar. p. 135.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 186.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 187.
- ^ Oman. Nelson. p. 621.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 188.
- ^ a b Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 190.
- ^ Goodwin. The Ships of Trafalgar. p. 43.
- ^ Warwick. Voices from the Battle of Trafalgar. pp. 200–01.
- ^ a b Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 191.
- ^ a b c Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 193.
- ^ Gardiner. The Campaign of Trafalgar 1803–1805. p. 152.
- ^ a b Warwick. Voices from the Battle of Trafalgar. p. 213.
- ^ Warwick. Voices from the Battle of Trafalgar. p. 211.
- ^ Clayton & Craig. Trafalgar. p. 211.
- ^ a b Adkin. The Trafalgar Companion. p. 508.
- ^ a b Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 194.
- ^ Clayton & Craig. Trafalgar. p. 210.
- ^ a b c Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 195.
- ^ a b c d e f g Goodwin. The Ships of Trafalgar. p. 44.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 199.
- ^ a b Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 198.
- ^ Warwick. Voices from the Battle of Trafalgar. p. 212.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 200.
- ^ a b Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 201.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 210.
- ^ a b Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 213.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 214.
- ^ Woodman. The Victory of Seapower. p. 133.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 215.
- ^ a b Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 220.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 225.
- ^ a b c Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 229.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Goodwin. The Ships of Trafalgar. p. 45.
- ^ Woodman. The Victory of Seapower. p. 54.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 233.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 236.
- ^ Winfield. British Warships in the Age of Sail 1793–1817. p. 25.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 251.
- ^ a b Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 255.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 256.
- ^ a b c Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 257.
- ^ Famous Fighters of the Fleet, Edward Fraser, 1904, p. 214
- ^ a b c Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 263.
- ^ Goodwin. The Ships of Trafalgar. p. 46.
- ^ a b c d e Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 280.
- ^ a b Mackenzie. The Trafalgar Roll. p. 50.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 262.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 108.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. pp. 269–270.
- ^ Hunt. The Marine Art of Geoff Hunt. p. 23.
- ^ a b Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 266.
- ^ Adkins. Trafalgar. p. 147.
- ^ Adkin. The Trafalgar Companion. p. 310.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 274.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 267.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 268.
- ^ Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 316.
- ^ Mostert. The Line Upon A Wind. pp. 420–26.
- ^ a b Adkins & Adkins. Jack Tar. p. 228.
- ^ Warwick. Voices from the Battle of Trafalgar. pp. 211–12.
- ^ Eliab Harvey (6 December 1805). Letter to W. Lloyd. Essex Record Office: D/DGu/C8. as cited in Willis. The Fighting Temeraire. p. 192.
References
- Adkin, Mark (2007). The Trafalgar Companion: A Guide to History's Most Famous Sea Battle and the Life of Admiral Lord Nelson. London: Aurum Press. ISBN 978-1-84513-018-3.
- Adkins, Roy (2005). Trafalgar: The Biography of a Battle. London: Abacus. ISBN 0-349-11632-6.
- Adkins, Roy; Adkins, Lesley (2008). Jack Tar: The Extraordinary Lives of Ordinary Seamen in Nelson's Navy. London: Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-12034-8.
- Clayton, Tim; Craig, Phil (2005). Trafalgar: The Men, the Battle, the Storm. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-83028-X.
- ISBN 978-1-86176-281-8.
- Gardiner, Robert (2005). The Campaign of Trafalgar 1803–1805. London: Mercury Books. ISBN 978-1-84560-008-2.
- ISBN 1-84486-015-9.
- ISBN 978-1-84486-080-7.
- ISBN 0-85177-252-8.
- Mackenzie, Colonel Robert Holden (2004). The Trafalgar Roll: The Ships and the Officers. London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-86176-228-3.
- Mostert, Noel (2008). The Line Upon A Wind: The Greatest War Fought at Sea Under Sail, 1793–1815. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-7126-0927-2.
- Oman, Carola (1987). Nelson. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-40672-0.
- Warwick, Peter (2005). Voices from the Battle of Trafalgar. ISBN 0-7153-2000-9.
- Willis, Sam (2010). The Fighting Temeraire: Legend of Trafalgar. London: Quercus. ISBN 978-1-84916-261-6.
- Winfield, Rif (2008). British Warships in the Age of Sail 1793–1817: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates. London: Seaforth. ISBN 978-1-84415-717-4.
- Woodman, Richard (2005). The Victory of Seapower: Winning the Napoleonic War 1806–1814. London: Mercury Books. ISBN 1-84560-012-6.
External links
- Media related to HMS Temeraire (ship, 1798) at Wikimedia Commons