Impact of the Hindu–German Conspiracy
The Hindu–German Conspiracy failed to engage popular support within India. However, it had a significant impact on Britain's policies both in the empire, as well as on her international relations.[1][2][3][4][5] The outlines and plans for the nascent ideas of the conspiracy were noted and began to be tracked by the British intelligence as early as 1911.[6] Alarmed at the agile organisation, which repeatedly reformed at different parts of the country despite being subdued in others, the chief of Indian Intelligence Sir Charles Cleveland was forced to warn that the idea and attempt at pan-Indian revolutions were spreading through India "like some hidden fire".[6][7] A massive, concerted and coordinated effort was required to subdue the movement. Attempts were made in 1914 to prevent the naturalisation of Tarak Nath Das as an American citizen, while successful pressure was applied to have Har Dayal interned.[4] The conspiracy had been detected early by British intelligence, and had been the subject of strong British pressure from 1914.
Background
World War I began with an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards the United Kingdom from within the mainstream political leadership, contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt. India contributed massively to the British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. However,
Political impact
The Conspiracy, judged by the British Indian Government's own evaluation at the time, and those of a number of contemporary and modern historians, was one of the most important events in the Indian independence movement and was one of the most significant threats to have faced the Raj in the second decade of the 20th century.[15][16]
In India
The conspiracy, especially in the scenario of the British war effort and the threat from the militant movement in India, was the major factor for the passage of the Defence of India Act 1915. Among the strongest proponents of the act was Michael O'Dwyer, then the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, and this was largely due to the Ghadarite movement.[17]
It is now judged to have been the principal factor guiding British political concessions as well as Whitehall's India policy during and after World War I, including the passage of
1919 was also the time that
Afghanistan
Ominously, in 1919, the
Lastly, the British efforts to downplay and disguise the nature and impact of the revolutionary movement at this time also resulted in a policy designed to strengthen the moderate movement in India, which ultimately saw
International relations
The conspiracy influenced a number of aspects of Great Britain's international relations, most of all the
Anglo-US relations
By 1916, majority of the resources of the American department of the British Foreign office were related to the Indian seditionist movement. Before the outbreak of the war,
However, although the new Secretary of State,
The issue was ultimately addressed by
Sino-English and Anglo-Japanese relations
Through 1915-16, China (along with Indonesia) formed one of the major bases for the conspirators, and significant efforts were made by the British Government to coax China into the war to attempt to control the German and Ghadar intrigues. This would also allow free purchase of arms from China for the Entente powers.[31] However, Yuan's proposals for bringing China into the war were against Japanese interests and gains from the war. This along with Japanese support for Sun Yat Sen and rebels in Southern China laid the foundations of deterioration of Anglo-Japanese relations as early as 1916.[32] After the end of World War I, Japan increasingly became a haven for radical Indian nationalists in exile, who were protected by patriotic Japanese societies. Notable among these included Rash Behari Bose, Tarak Nath Das, A. M. Sahay as well as others. The protections offered to these nationalists effectively prevented British efforts to repatriate them and became a major policy concern.[33][34]
Indian Independence Committee
The IIC was formally disbanded in November 1918, with most of its members becoming closely associated with
Ghadar Party
The Ghadar Party, suppressed during the war, revived itself in 1920 and openly declared its communist beliefs. Although sidelined in California, it remained relatively stronger in East Asia, where it allied itself with the Chinese Communist Party.[37][38]
Later efforts
Although the conspiracy failed during World War I and the movement suppressed at the time with a number of its key leaders hanged or incarcerated, a number of prominent Ghadarites also managed to flee India to Japan and Thailand. The concept of a revolutionary movement for independence also found a revival amongst later generation Indian leaders, most notably
Notes and references
- ^ Dignan 1971, p. 57
- ^ Brown 1948, p. 303
- ^ a b Majumdar 1971, p. xix
- ^ a b c Dignan 1971, p. 60
- ^ a b Cole 2001, p. 572
- ^ a b c Hopkirk 2001, p. 41
- ^ Hopkirk 1997, p. 43
- ^ Gupta 1997, p. 12
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 201
- ^ Brown 1948, p. 300
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 798
- ^ Hoover 1985, p. 252
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 788
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 234
- ^ Sinha 1971, p. 153
- ^ Ker 1917
- ^ a b Popplewell 1995, p. 175
- ^ Lovett 1920, pp. 94, 187–191
- ^ Sarkar 1921, p. 137
- ^ a b Tinker 1968, p. 92
- ^ Sarkar 1983, pp. 169–172, 176
- ^ a b Swami P (November 1, 1997). "Jallianwala Bagh revisited". The Hindu. Archived from the original on November 28, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-07.
- ^ Sarkar 1983, p. 177
- ^ Cell 2002, p. 67
- ^ Brown 1973, p. 523
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 4
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 800
- ^ Fraser 1977, p. 260
- ^ a b c Strachan 2001, p. 804
- ^ Dignan 1971
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 802
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 803
- ^ Dignan 1983
- ^ Brown 1986, p. 421
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 815
- ^ Tinker 1968, p. 92,93
- ^ a b Fraser 1977, p. 269
- ^ Deepak 1999, p. 441
- ^ Lebra 1977, p. 23
- ^ Lebra 1977, p. 24
- ^ Thomson M (September 23, 2004). "Hitler's secret Indian Army". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-09-02.
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 90
- ^ "Historical Journey of the Indian National Army". National Archives of Singapore. 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-05-16. Retrieved 2007-07-07.
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