Hindu–German Conspiracy
| Anushilan Samiti |
|---|
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| Influence |
| Anushilan Samiti |
| Notable events |
| Related topics |
The Hindu–German Conspiracy
The Indo-German alliance and conspiracy were the target of a worldwide British intelligence effort, which successfully prevented further attempts. American intelligence agencies arrested key figures in the aftermath of the Annie Larsen affair in 1917. The conspiracy resulted in the Lahore conspiracy case trials in India as well as the Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial — at the time the longest and most expensive trial ever held in the United States.[1]
This series of events was pivotal for the
Background
Other related events include:
- the 1915 Singapore Mutiny,
- the Annie Larsen arms plot,
- the Jugantar–German plot,
- the German mission to Kabul,
- by some accounts, the Black Tom explosion in 1916.
Parts of the conspiracy also included efforts to subvert the British Indian Army in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I.
Indian revolutionary underground
The controversial
The earliest mention of a conspiracy for armed revolution in India appears in Nixon's Report on Revolutionary Organization, which reported that
At the time of the
Organizations founded in the United States and in
Ghadar Party
Large-scale Indian
The Ghadar Party, initially the 'Pacific Coast Hindustan Association', was formed in 1913 in the United States under the leadership of Har Dayal, with Sohan Singh Bhakna as its president. It drew members from Indian immigrants, largely from Punjab.[17] Many of its members were also from the University of California at Berkeley including Dayal, Tarak Nath Das, Kartar Singh Sarabha and V.G. Pingle. The party quickly gained support from Indian expatriates, especially in the United States, Canada and Asia. Ghadar meetings were held in Los Angeles, Oxford, Vienna, Washington, D.C., and Shanghai.[34]
Ghadar's ultimate goal was to overthrow
Towards the end of 1913, the party established contact with prominent revolutionaries in India, including
Germany and the Berlin Committee
With the onset of
German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg authorized German activity against British India as World War I broke out in September 1914. Germany decided to actively support the Ghadarite plans.[37] Using the links established between Indian and Irish residents in Germany (including Irish nationalist and poet Roger Casement) and the German Foreign Office, Oppenheim tapped into the Indo-Irish network in the United States. Har Dayal helped organise the Ghadar party before his arrest in the United States in 1914. He jumped bail and made his way to Switzerland, leaving the party and its publications in the charge of Ram Chandra Bharadwaj, who became the Ghadar president in 1914. The German consulate in San Francisco was tasked to make contact with Ghadar leaders in California. A naval lieutenant by the name of Wilhelm von Brincken with the help of the Indian nationalist journalist Tarak Nath Das and an intermediary by the name of Charles Lattendorf established links with Bharadwaj. Meanwhile, in Switzerland the Berlin committee was able to convince Har Dayal that organising a revolution in India was feasible.[2]
Conspiracy
In May 1914, the Canadian government refused to allow the 400 Indian passengers of the ship
The incident became a focal point for the Indian community in Canada, which rallied in support of the passengers and against the government's policies. After a two-month legal battle, 24 of the passengers were allowed to immigrate. On reaching Calcutta, the passengers were detained under the Defence of India Act at Budge Budge by the British Indian government, which tried to forcibly transport them to Punjab. This caused rioting at Budge Budge, resulting in fatalities on both sides.[42] Ghadar leaders like Barkatullah and Tarak Nath Das used the inflammatory passions surrounding the Komagata Maru event as a rallying point and successfully brought many disaffected Indians in North America into the party's fold.[43]
The British Indian Army, meanwhile, contributed significantly to the Allied war effort in World War I. Consequently, a reduced force, an estimated 15,000 troops in late 1914, was stationed in India.[44] It was in this scenario that concrete plans for organising uprisings in India were made.
In September 1913 a Ghadarite named Mathra Singh visited Shanghai to promote the nationalist cause amongst Indians there, followed by a visit to India in January 1914, when Singh circulated Ghadar literature amongst Indian soldiers through clandestine sources before leaving for Hong Kong. Singh reported that the situation in India was favorable for revolution.[43][45]
By October 1914, many Ghadarites had returned to India and were assigned tasks like contacting Indian revolutionaries and organizations, spreading propaganda and literature, and arranging to get arms into the country.
East Asia
Efforts had begun as early as 1911 to procure arms and smuggle them into India.[48] When a clear idea of the conspiracy emerged, more earnest and elaborate plans were made to obtain arms and to enlist international support. Herambalal Gupta, who had arrived in the United States in 1914 at the Berlin Committee's directive, took over the leadership of American wing of the conspiracy after the failure of the SS Korea mission. Gupta immediately began efforts to obtain men and arms. While men were in plentiful supply with more and more Indians coming forward to join the Ghadarite cause, obtaining arms for the uprising proved to be more difficult.[49]
The revolutionaries started negotiations with the Chinese government through James Dietrich, who held
The Indian
Europe and United States
The Indian nationalists then
In the United States, an elaborate plan and arrangement was made to ship arms from the country and from the
Although the shipment was meant to supply the mutiny planned for February 1915, it was not dispatched until June. By then the conspiracy had been uncovered in India, and its major leaders had been arrested or gone into hiding. The shipment itself failed when disastrous co-ordination prevented a successful rendezvous off
Pan-Indian mutiny
By the start of 1915, many Ghadarites (nearly 8,000 in the Punjab province alone by some estimates) had returned to India.
February 1915
In India, unaware of the delayed shipment and confident of being able to rally the Indian
On 15 February, the
Christmas Day plot
In April 1915, unaware of the failure of the Annie Larsen plan, Papen arranged, through
To provide the Bengal group enough time to capture Calcutta and to prevent reinforcements from being rushed in, a mutiny coinciding with Jugantar's Christmas Day insurrection was planned for Burma with arms smuggled in from neutral Thailand.
Also to coincide with the proposed Jugantar insurrection in Calcutta was a planned raid on the
Afghanistan
Efforts were directed at drawing Afghanistan into the war on the side of the Central Powers, which it was hoped would incite a nationalist or pan-Islamic uprising in India and destabilise the British recruiting grounds in Punjab and across India. After Russia's defeat in the 1905 Russo-Japanese war, her influence had declined, and it was Afghanistan that was at the time seen by Britain as the only power in the sub-continent capable of directly threatening India.[83]
In the spring of 1915, an
In December 1915, the Indian members founded the Provisional Government of India, which it was hoped would weigh on Habibullah's advisory council to aid India and force the Emir's hands. In January 1916, the Emir approved a draft treaty with Germany to buy time. However, the Central campaign in the Middle East faltered at around this time, ending hopes that an overland route through Persia could be secured for aid and assistance to Afghanistan. The German members of the mission left Afghanistan in June 1916, ending the German intrigues in the country.[91] Nonetheless, Mahendra Pratap and his Provisional Government stayed behind, attempting to establish links with Japan, Republican China and Tsarist Russia. After the Russian revolution, Pratap opened negotiations with the Soviet Union, visiting Trotsky in Red Petrograd in 1918, and Lenin in Moscow in 1919 and he visited the Kaiser in Berlin in 1918.[92] He pressed for a joint Soviet-German offensive through Afghanistan into India. This was considered by the Soviets for some time after the 1919 coup in Afghanistan in which Amanullah Khan was instated as the Emir and the third Anglo-Afghan war began. Pratap may also have influenced the "Kalmyk Project", a Soviet plan to invade India through Tibet and the Himalayan buffer states.[93][94]
Middle East
Another arm of the conspiracy was directed at the Indian troops who were serving in Middle East. In the Middle Eastern theatre, members of the Berlin Committee, including
Nonetheless, in culmination of these efforts, Indian prisoners of war from France, Turkey, Germany, and
Counter-intelligence
British intelligence began to note and track outlines and nascent ideas of the conspiracy as early as 1911.
In Asia
At the outbreak of the war, Punjab CID sent teams to Hong Kong to intercept and infiltrate the returning Ghadarites, who often made little effort to hide their plans and objectives.[105] These teams were successful in uncovering details of the full scale of the conspiracy, and in discovering Har Dayal's whereabouts. Immigrants returning to India were double checked against a list of revolutionaries.[107]
In Punjab, the CID, although aware of possible plans for unrest, was not successful in infiltrating the conspiracy for the mutiny until February 1915. A dedicated force was formed, headed by the Chief of Punjab CID, and including amongst its members Liaqat Hayat Khan (later head of Punjab CID himself). In February that year, the CID was successful in recruiting the services of Kirpal Singh to infiltrate the plan. Singh, who had a Ghadarite cousin serving in the 23rd Cavalry, was able to infiltrate the leadership, being assigned to work in his cousin's regiment. Singh was soon under suspicion of being a spy, but was able to pass on the information regarding the date and scale of the uprising to British Indian intelligence.[108] As the date for the mutiny approached, a desperate Rash Behari Bose brought forward the mutiny day to the evening of 19 February, which was discovered by Kirpal Singh on the very day. No attempts were made by the Ghadarites to restrain him, and he rushed to inform Liaqat Hayat Khan of the change of plans. Ordered back to his station to signal when the revolutionaries had assembled, Singh was detained by the would-be mutineers, but managed to escape under the cover of answering the call of nature.[108]
The role of German or Baltic-German double-agents, especially the agent named
Europe and the Middle East
By the time the war broke out, the
Among other enterprises, the European intelligence network attempted to eliminate some of the Indian leaders in Europe. A British agent named Donald Gullick was dispatched to assassinate
The
In the Middle East, British counter-intelligence was directed at preserving the loyalty of the Indian sepoy in the face of Turkish propaganda and the concept of The Caliph's Jihad, while a particularly significant effort was directed at intercepting the
United States
In the United States, the conspiracy was successfully infiltrated by British intelligence through Irish and Indian channels. The activities of the
Francis Cunliffe Owen, the officer heading the Home Office agency in New York, had become thoroughly acquainted with
Following this, several approaches were adopted, including infiltration through an Indian national named Bela Singh who successfully set up a network of agents passing on information to Hopkinson, and through the use of the famous American
Trials
The conspiracy led to several trials in India, most famous among them the
In the United States, the
In May 1917, a group of Indian nationalists of the Ghadar Party were indicted by a federal grand jury on a charge of conspiracy to form a military enterprise against Britain. In later years the proceedings were criticised as being largely a show trial designed to appease the British government.[11] The jury during the trial was carefully selected to exclude any Irish person with republican views or associations.[132] The trial lasted from November 20, 1917, to April 24, 1918, and resulted in the convictions of 29 people, including 14 Indian nationalists. British colonial authorities hoped the conviction of the Indians would result in their deportation back to India. Had the nationalists been deported to India, they would've faced much harsher sentences, including execution. In contrast to the mass executions in India, the Indian nationalists convicted in the San Francisco trial received prison terms ranged from 30 days to 22 months, as they faced far less serious charges of violating U.S. neutrality laws.[133]
Strong public support in favour of the Indians, especially the revived Anglophobic sentiments following the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles which were perceived as being overtly favorable towards Britain, allowed the Ghadarite movement to be revived despite British concerns.[134]
Impact
The conspiracy had a significant impact on Britain's policies, both within the empire and in international relations.[3][35][135][136][137][138] The outlines and plans for the nascent ideas of the conspiracy were noted and tracked by British intelligence as early as 1911.[104] Alarmed at the agile organisation, which repeatedly reformed in different parts of the country despite being subdued in others, the chief of Indian Intelligence Sir Charles Cleveland was forced to warn that the idea and attempts at pan-Indian revolutions were spreading through India "like some hidden fire".[104][139] A massive, concerted, and coordinated effort was required to subdue the movement. Attempts were made in 1914 to prevent the naturalisation of Tarak Nath Das as an American citizen, while successful pressure was applied to have Har Dayal interned.[137]
Political impact
The conspiracy, an important set of events in the Indian independence movement, according to the British Indian Government's own evaluation at the time, as well as those of several contemporary and modern historians, and it was one of the significant threats faced by the Raj in the second decade of the 20th century.[140][141]
Amid the British war effort and the threat from the militant movement in India, the British passed the
The events that followed the passage of the Rowlatt Act in 1919 were also influenced by the conspiracy. At the time, British Indian Army troops were returning from the battlefields of Europe and
Ominously, in 1919, the
Lastly, British efforts to downplay and disguise the nature and impact of the revolutionary movement at this time also resulted in a policy designed to strengthen the moderate movement in India, which ultimately saw Gandhi's rise in the Indian movement.[4]
International relations
The conspiracy influenced several aspects of Great Britain's international relations, most of all
At the start of the war, the American government's refusal to check the Indian seditionist movement was a major concern for the British government. By 1916, a majority of the resources of the American department of the British Foreign Office were related to the Indian seditionist movement. Before the outbreak of the war, the political commitments of the
The conspiracy issue was ultimately addressed by
Through 1915–16, China and Indonesia were the major bases for the conspirators, and significant efforts were made by the British government to coax China into the war to attempt to control the German and Ghadar intrigues. This would also allow free purchase of arms from China for the
Ghadar Party and IIC
The IIC was formally disbanded in November 1918. Most of its members became closely associated with
The Ghadar Party, suppressed during the war, revived itself in 1920 and openly declared its communist beliefs. Although sidelined in California, it remained relatively stronger in East Asia, where it allied itself with the Chinese Communist Party.[34][160]
World War II
Although the conspiracy failed during World War I, the movement being suppressed at the time and several of its key leaders hanged or incarcerated, several prominent Ghadarites also managed to flee India to Japan and Thailand. The concept of a revolutionary movement for independence also found a revival amongst later generation Indian leaders, most notably
Commemoration
The Ghadar Memorial Hall in San Francisco honours members of the party who were hanged following the Lahore conspiracy trial,
Note on the name
The conspiracy is known under several different names, including the 'Hindu Conspiracy', the 'Indo-German Conspiracy', the 'Ghadar conspiracy' (or 'Ghadr conspiracy'), or the 'German plot'.
The term '
See also
Notes and references
Notes
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- ^ a b c d Hoover 1985, p. 252
- ^ a b Brown 1948, p. 300
- ^ a b Popplewell 1995, p. 4
- ^ Desai 2005, p. 30
- ^ Desai 2005, p. 43
- ^ Desai 2005, p. 93
- ^ Desai 2005, p. 125
- ^ Desai 2005, p. 154
- ^ Yadav 1992, p. 6
- ^ a b Fraser 1977, p. 257
- ^ Bose & Jalal 1998, p. 117
- ^ Dutta & Desai 2003, p. 135
- ^ Bhatt 2001, p. 83
- ^ a b c d e f g Gupta 1997, p. 12
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 201
- ^ a b c d Strachan 2001, p. 795
- ^ Terrorism in Bengal, Compiled and Edited by A.K. Samanta, Government of West Bengal, 1995, Vol. II, p625.
- ^ a b c Qureshi 1999, p. 78
- ^ a b c "Champak-Chatto" And the Berlin Committee". Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. Archived from the original on 8 June 2008. Retrieved 4 November 2007.
- ^ a b Strachan 2001, p. 794
- ^ Yadav 1992, p. 8
- ^ Hopkirk 1997, p. 44
- ^ Owen 2007, p. 65
- ^ Owen 2007, p. 66
- ^ Chirol 2006, p. 148
- ^ von Pochhammer 2005, p. 435
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 132
- ^ Fischer-Tinē 2007, p. 333
- ^ a b c d Fischer-Tinē 2007, p. 334
- ^ a b Fischer-Tinē 2007, p. 335
- ^ a b Plowman 2003, p. 82
- ^ a b c Popplewell 1995, p. 148
- ^ a b c Deepak 1999, p. 441
- ^ a b Sarkar 1983, p. 146
- ^ Deepak 1999, p. 439
- ^ a b c Hoover 1985, p. 251
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 798
- ^ a b c d Gupta 1997, p. 11
- ^ a b c Puri 1980, p. 60
- ^ Hopkirk 2001, p. 96
- ^ Ward 2002, pp. 79–96
- ^ a b c d e f Strachan 2001, p. 796
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 793
- ^ a b c Deepak 1999, p. 442
- ^ a b Sarkar 1983, p. 148
- ^ a b Brown 1948, p. 303
- ^ Plowman 2003, p. 87
- ^ a b c Brown 1948, p. 301
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 276
- ^ a b Brown 1948, p. 306
- ^ Brown 1948, p. 307
- ^ a b Popplewell 1995, p. 224
- ^ a b Popplewell 1995, p. 225
- ^ a b Fraser 1977, p. 261
- ^ Plowman 2003, p. 90
- ^ a b c Gupta 1997, p. 3
- ^ Hoover 1985, p. 255
- ^ a b Wilma D (18 May 2006). "U.S. Customs at Grays Harbor seizes the schooner Annie Larsen loaded with arms and ammunition on June 29, 1915". HistoryLink.org. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
- ^ a b Hoover 1985, p. 256
- ^ Brown 1948, p. 304
- ^ Stafford, D. "Men of Secrets. Roosevelt and Churchill". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 October 2007.
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- ^ Chhabra 2005, p. 597
- ^ a b Deepak 1999, p. 443
- ^ a b Herbert 2003, p. 223
- ^ a b Sareen 1995, p. 14,15
- ^ Kuwajima 1988, p. 23
- ^ Farwell 1992, p. 244
- ^ Corr 1975, p. 15
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 797
- ^ a b Fraser 1977, p. 263
- ^ a b c d Strachan 2001, p. 800
- ^ Hopkirk 2001, p. 189
- ^ a b Fraser 1977, p. 264
- ^ a b c d e f Strachan 2001, p. 802
- ^ Hopkirk 2001, p. 179
- ^ a b Majumdar 1971, p. 382
- ^ a b Fraser 1977, p. 266
- ^ Fraser 1977, p. 267
- ^ Hopkirk 2001, p. 180
- ^ Fraser 1977, p. 265
- ^ Hughes 2002, p. 453
- ^ Hopkirk 2001, p. 98
- ^ Hopkirk 2001, pp. 136–140
- ^ Jalal 2007, p. 105
- ^ Reetz 2007, p. 142
- ^ Hughes 2002, p. 466
- ^ Hopkirk 2001, p. 160
- ^ Sims-Williams 1980, p. 120
- ^ Hughes 2002, p. 472
- ^ Andreyev 2003, p. 95
- ^ Andreyev 2003, p. 87
- ^ Andreyev 2003, p. 96
- ^ a b c McKale 1998, p. 127
- ^ a b c Yadav 1992, p. 35
- ^ a b Yadav 1992, p. 36
- ^ Qureshi 1999, p. 79
- ^ Sykes 1921, p. 101
- ^ a b Herbert 2003
- ^ Singh, Jaspal. "History of the Ghadar Movement". panjab.org.uk. Retrieved 31 October 2007.
- ^ Asghar, S.B (12 June 2005). "A famous uprising". dawn.com. Retrieved 2 November 2007.
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 805
- ^ a b c Hopkirk 2001, p. 41
- ^ a b Popplewell 1995, p. 168
- ^ a b Popplewell 1995, p. 200
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 194
- ^ a b Popplewell 1995, p. 173
- ^ Hopkirk 2001, p. 182
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 788
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 216,217
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 230
- ^ Woods 2007, p. 55
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 234
- ^ Barooah 2004
- ^ Voska & Irwin 1940, p. 98,108,120,122,123
- ^ a b Masaryk 1970, p. 50,221,242
- ^ Bose 1971, p. 233,233
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 237
- ^ Collett 2006, p. 144
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 182,183,187
- ^ Seidt 2001, p. 4
- ^ "Echoes of Freedom: South Asian pioneers in California 1899–1965". UC, Berkeley, Bancroft Library. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 147
- ^ Radhan 2002, p. 259
- ^ Radhan 2002, p. 261
- ^ Plowman 2003, p. 93
- ^ Chhabra 2005, p. 598
- ^ Talbot 2000, p. 124
- ^ "History of Andaman Cellular Jail". Andaman Cellular Jail heritage committee. Archived from the original on 9 February 2010. Retrieved 8 December 2007.
- ^ Khosla, K (23 June 2002). "Ghadr revisited". The Tribune. Chandigarh. Retrieved 8 December 2007.
- ^ a b c Jensen 1979, p. 65
- ^ "Article clipped from The San Francisco Examiner". The San Francisco Examiner. 1 May 1918. p. 13. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
- ^ Dignan 1971, p. 75
- ^ Dignan 1971, p. 57
- ^ a b Majumdar 1971, p. xix
- ^ a b c Dignan 1971, p. 60
- ^ a b Cole 2001, p. 572
- ^ Hopkirk 1997, p. 43
- ^ Sinha 1971, p. 153
- ^ Ker 1917
- ^ a b Popplewell 1995, p. 175
- ^ Lovett 1920, pp. 94, 187–191
- ^ Sarkar 1921, p. 137
- ^ a b Tinker 1968, p. 92,93
- ^ Fisher 1972, p. 129
- ^ Sarkar 1983, pp. 169–172, 176
- ^ a b Swami P (1 November 1997). "Jallianwala Bagh revisited". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 28 November 2007. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Sarkar 1983, p. 177
- ^ Cell 2002, p. 67
- ^ Brown 1973, p. 523
- ^ a b Fraser 1977, p. 260
- ^ a b c d Strachan 2001, p. 804
- ^ a b Dignan 1971
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 803
- ^ Tagore 1997, p. 486
- ^ a b Brown 1986, p. 421
- ^ Dignan 1983
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 815
- ^ a b Fraser 1977, p. 269
- ^ Lebra 1977, p. 23
- ^ Lebra 1977, p. 24
- ^ Thomson M (23 September 2004). "Hitler's secret Indian Army". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2 September 2007.
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 90
- ^ "Historical Journey of the Indian National Army". National Archives of Singapore. 2003. Retrieved 7 July 2007.
- ^ Radhan 2002, p. 203
- ^ "Pioneer Asian Indian immigration to the Pacific coast". Sikhpioneers.org. Archived from the original on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
- ^ "Bhai Paramanand". IndianPost, Adarsh Mumbai News and Feature Agency. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
- ^ "Komagata Maru Walk 2006". Komagata Maru Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 14 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
- ^ "1915 Indian (Singapore) Mutiny". Singapore Infopedia. Archived from the original on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 14 June 2007.
- ^ Wilkinson & Ashley 1993, p. 48
- ^ "The Taraknath Das Foundation". Columbia University. Archived from the original on 27 March 2008. Retrieved 21 May 2008.
- ^ Jensen 1979, p. 83
- ^ Plowman 2003, p. Footnote 2
- ^ Isemonger & Slattery 1919
- ^ a b "Bagha Jatin". whereinthecity.com. Retrieved 10 December 2007.
- ^ Jensen 1979, p. 67
- ^ Strother 2004, p. 308
- ^ "Dr. Matt Plowman to have conference paper published". Waldorf College. 14 April 2005. Archived from the original on 15 December 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2007.
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Further reading
- Tadhg Foley (Editor), Maureen O'Connor (Editor), Ireland and India - Colonies, Culture and Empire, ISBN 9780716528371
External links
- "In the Spirit of Ghadar". The Tribune, Chandigarh
- Kim, Hyung-Chan, Dictionary of Asian American History, New York: Greenwood Press,1986.
- India rising a Berlin plot. New York Timesarchives.
- The Ghadr Rebellion by Khushwant Singh, sourced from The Illustrated Weekly of India 26 February 1961, pp. 34–35; 5 March 1961, p. 45; and 12 March 1961, p. 41.
- The Hindustan Ghadar Collection, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley
- Hindu-German Conspiracy Trial on South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)
| Background |  | |
|---|---|---|
| Ghadar | ||
| Berlin Committee |
| |
| Indian figures | ||
| German figures | ||
| Conspiracy | ||
| Counter-intelligence | ||
| Related topics | ||