Anarchism
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Anarchism is a
Although traces of anarchist ideas are found all throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from the
Anarchists employ
Etymology, terminology, and definition
The etymological origin of anarchism is from the Ancient Greek anarkhia (ἀναρχία), meaning "without a ruler", composed of the prefix an- ("without") and the word arkhos ("leader" or "ruler"). The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy.[2] Anarchism appears in English from 1642 as anarchisme and anarchy from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder.[3] Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as anarchists, although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as William Godwin (1756–1836) and Wilhelm Weitling (1808–1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not use anarchist or anarchism in describing themselves or their beliefs.[4]
The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist (
While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism,
While opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently.[22][nb 3] Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy.[25]
History
Pre-modern era
The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism (the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi.[27] Alongside Stoicism, Taoism has been said to have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism.[28]
Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece.
In
In Basra, religious sects preached against the state.[31] In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies.[32] Renewed interest in antiquity during the Renaissance and in private judgment during the Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism, particularly in France.[33] Enlightenment challenges to intellectual authority (secular and religious) and the revolutions of the 1790s and 1848 all spurred the ideological development of what became the era of classical anarchism.[34]
Modern era
During the
Drawing from mutualism,
By the turn of the 20th century, anarchism had spread all over the world.[43] It was a notable feature of the international syndicalist movement.[44] In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism.[45] Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from East Asian countries, who moved to the Japanese capital to study.[46] In Latin America, Argentina was a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism, where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology.[47] During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence, known as propaganda of the deed.[48] The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many Communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts.[49] Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to prevent anarchists immigrating to the US, including the Immigration Act of 1903, also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act.[50] Illegalism was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period.[51]
Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the
In the
Post-WWII
By the end of
Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and
While having revolutionary aspirations, many forms of anarchism are not confrontational nowadays. Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way of social organization, based on mutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation. Scholar Carissa Honeywell takes the example of
Thought
Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions,
Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it.
Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum.
Classical
Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism. They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism (collectivist, communist and syndicalist). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society.[84]
Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include "abolishing the state",
Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a
Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the
Post-classical and contemporary
Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement,
Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory.[108] Various anarchist groups, tendencies, and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement.[109] While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple anarchisms, rather than a singular anarchism, in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists.[110]
Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism,
Tactics
Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals, namely, to first oppose the Establishment and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends.[114] A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other.[115] Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence, reject violence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two.[116]
Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.[117]
Classical era
During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as
Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial.[122] Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends.[123] Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a tyrant and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible.[124] Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta, who were proponents of limited use of violence, stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil.[125]
Anarchists took an active role in
Revolutionary
In the current era, Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno, a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism, has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group The Invisible Committee advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression utilizing sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism, and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included.[128]
Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada,
Evolutionary
Anarchists commonly employ direct action. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives.[115] Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as horizontalism.[131] Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various grassroots movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the big-A anarchism of the classical era, the newly coined term small-a anarchism signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to classical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize.[132]
The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role.
As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online in the World Wide Web to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals.[135] Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance.[136]
Anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, and surrealism are blended to display the anarchist ideal.[137] As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action.[138] Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds.[139] Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a carnivalesque atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity.[140]
Key issues
As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought, disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of
The state
Objection to the state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism.[143] Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is open or transparent, as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the ruling class is distinct from the rest of society.[144]
Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." A. John Simmons and Leslie Green, who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely.[145] Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ.[146]
Gender, sexuality, and free love
As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles.[147]
Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing.[148] Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men.[149] A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was free love. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support polyamory, relationship anarchy, and queer anarchism.[150] Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure.[151] Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together.[152] Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love.[153] Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another.[154]
During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the
Education
Anarchist education | State education | |
---|---|---|
Concept | Education as self-mastery | Education as service |
Management | Community based | State run |
Methods | Practice-based learning | Vocational training |
Aims | Being a critical member of society | Being a productive member of society |
The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of
In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker
Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism.[165]
Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers (Paul Goodman, Herbert Read, and Colin Ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in consumerism as part of a consumer society.[166] Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.[167]
While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists' schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain.[168]
The arts
The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others.[170] In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neo-romanticism movement.[171] In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk.[172] Anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Herbert Read stated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life.[173]
Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends.[174] In his book Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas, Chris Robé claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism."[175] Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists (Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gustav Landauer and Camillo Berneri) and publications such as Anarchy wrote about matters pertaining to the arts.[176]
Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect.
Criticism
The most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government."[179] Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing; a response would be that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist federalism.[180]
Another criticism of anarchism is the belief that it is inherently unstable: that an anarchist society would inevitably evolve back into a state. Thomas Hobbes and other early social contract theorists argued that the state emerges in response to natural anarchy in order to protect the people's interests and keep order. Philosopher Robert Nozick argued that a "night-watchman state", or minarchy, would emerge from anarchy through the process of an invisible hand, in which people would exercise their liberty and buy protection from protection agencies, evolving into a minimal state. Anarchists reject these criticisms by arguing that humans in a state of nature would not just be in a state of war. Anarcho-primitivists in particular argue that humans were better off in a state of nature in small tribes living close to the land, while anarchists in general argue that the negatives of state organization, such as hierarchies, monopolies and inequality, outweigh the benefits.[181]
Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state cannot be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory as a ruling theory that has no ruling theory. Anarchism also calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong.[182]
Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations.[183] Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate.[184] In The Problem of Political Authority, Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism,[185] claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion."[186]
One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority.[187] Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success.[188] Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction.[189] Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment.[190] Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively.[191] Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering.[148]
See also
- Anarchism by country
- Governance without government
- List of anarchist political ideologies
- List of books about anarchism
Anarchist communities
References
Explanatory notes
- socialist traditions, especially the more socialist-aligned tradition following Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin.[17] Brian Morris argues that it is "conceptually and historically misleading" to "create a dichotomy between socialism and anarchism."[18]
Citations
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- ^ Nettlau 1996, p. 162.
- ^ Guérin 1970, "The Basic Ideas of Anarchism".
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 62; Goodway 2006, p. 4; Skirda 2002, p. 183; Fernández 2009, p. 9.
- ^ Morris 2002, p. 61.
- ^ Marshall 1992, p. 641; Cohn 2009, p. 6.
- ^ a b c d e Marshall 1992, p. 641.
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- ^ a b Osgood 1889, p. 1.
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- ^ a b Marshall 1992, pp. 564–565; Jennings 1993, p. 143; Gay & Gay 1999, p. 15; Morris 2008, p. 13; Johnson 2008, p. 169; Franks 2013, pp. 393–394.
- ^ Jennings 1999, p. 147.
- ^ Long 2013, p. 217.
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- ^ Brooks 1994, p. xi; Kahn 2000; Moynihan 2007.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 14–17.
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- ^ Wilbur 2019, pp. 216–218.
- ^ Levy & Adams 2018, p. 2.
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- ^ Avrich 1996, p. 6; Miller 1991, p. 11.
- ^ Pierson 2013, p. 187.
- ^ Morris 1993, p. 76.
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- ^ Avrich 1996, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Heywood 2017, pp. 146–147; Bakunin 1990.
- ^ Mayne 1999, p. 131.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. 327.
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- ^ Pernicone 2009, pp. 111–113.
- ^ Turcato 2019, pp. 239–244.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 6.
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- ^ Imrie 1994; Parry 1987, p. 15.
- ^ Evren 2011, p. 1.
- ^ a b Evren 2011, p. 2.
- ^ Williams 2007, p. 303.
- ^ Williams 2018, p. 4.
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General and cited sources
Primary sources
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Secondary sources
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- Antliff, Mark (1998). "Cubism, Futurism, Anarchism: The 'Aestheticism' of the "Action d'art" Group, 1906–1920". Oxford Art Journal. 21 (2): 101–120. JSTOR 1360616.
- Anderson, Benedict (2004). "In the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel". New Left Review. 2 (28): 85–129. Archived from the original on 19 December 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
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Further reading
- ISBN 978-0-939306-09-1.
- Baker, Zoe (2023). Means and Ends: The Revolutionary Practice of Anarchism in Europe and the United States. OCLC 1345217229.
- ISBN 978-1-904859-26-0.
- Edmundson, William A. (2007). Three Anarchical Fallacies: An Essay on Political Authority. ISBN 978-0-521-03751-8. Criticism of philosophical anarchism.
- ISBN 978-0-948491-22-1.
- Huemer, Michael (2012). The Problem of Political Authority: An Examination of the Right to Coerce and the Duty to Obey. London: ISBN 978-1-137-28164-7. A defence of philosophical anarchism, stating that "both kinds of 'anarchism' [i.e. philosophical and political anarchism] are philosophical and political claims." (p. 137)
- Le Guin, Ursula K. (2009). The Dispossessed. HarperCollins. Anarchistic popular fiction novel.
- ISBN 978-1-85168-370-3.
- ISBN 978-0-7914-7447-1.
- ISBN 978-0-691-15529-6.
- ISBN 978-0-520-21573-3. An argument for philosophical anarchism.
- Woodcock, George (January 1962). "Anarchism in Spain". History Today. 12 (1): 22–32. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
- Levy, Carl; Adams, Matthew S. (2019). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. S2CID 149333615.
External links
- Anarchism at Curlie
- Anarchy Archives – an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism.