Joseon Army
Joseon Army | |
---|---|
King of Joseon | |
Branch | Royal Guards Central Army Provincial armies and Militias |
Type | Army |
Role | Ground warfare |
Size | 84,500 (1592) 87,600 (1640s) |
Insignia | |
Ensign |
The Joseon Army (
History
Early period
The
Joseon–Jurchen border conflicts
Like
Oei Invasion
In 1419,
Yi Si-ae's Rebellion
When
Japanese Invasions of Korea
By the 16th century, the military became weak by the disavowment from Confucian scholars. During the
Yi Gwal's Rebellion
After the
Manchu-Joseon conflicts
Conservative Westerners took hard-line policy toward the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty, keeping their alliance with the Ming dynasty. The Later Jin, who had remained primarily friendly to Joseon, began to regard Joseon as an enemy. Han Yun, who participated in the rebellion of Yi Gwal, fled to Manchuria and urged the Later Jin ruler Nurhaci to attack Joseon; thus, the friendly relationship between the Later Jin and Joseon ended.
Battle of Sarhū
In 1619, the Joseon Expeditionary Force led Commander
The Joseon musketeers being overwhelmed by the Manchu cavalry prompted a revision of military tactics in Korea. In previous decades, the Imjin War was seen as a demonstration of the dominance of the firearm, and Joseon adjusted military forces accordingly. Both sides of the war lacked effective shock cavalry to take advantage of the vulnerabilities of unsupported musketeers. After the defeat at Sarhū, the Joseon forces revised their doctrine to have spearmen supporting the musketeers.
Later Jin invasion of Joseon
In 1627, 30,000 Manchu cavalries under General Amin (阿敏) and former Korean General Gang Hong-rip invaded Joseon, calling for the restoration of Gwanghaegun and execution of Westerners leaders, including Kim Ja-jeom. General Jang Man again fought against Later Jin but could not repel the invasion. Once again, Injo fled to Ganghwa Island. Meanwhile, Jin had no reason to attack Joseon and decided to go back to prepare for war against the Ming, and peace soon settled. The Later Jin and Joseon dynasties were declared brother nations, and Later Jin withdrew from the Korean peninsula. However, most Westerners kept their hard-line policy despite the war. Nurhaci, who had generally good opinions toward Korea, did not invade Korea again; however, when Nurhaci died and Hong Taiji succeeded him as ruler, Jin again began to seek a chance for another war. King Injo provided refuge to Ming general Mao Wenlong and with his unit after they fled from Later Jin and came to Korea; this action caused Later Jin to invade Korea again.
Qing invasion of Joseon
In 1636, Hong Taiji officially renamed his dynasty the
Military expansion
Northern campaigns
The
Yi In-jwa's Rebellion
Yi In-jwa attempted a
Hong Gyeong-rae's Rebellion
By the 19th century, royal relatives controlled the royal court through weak kings causing the military to weaken further.
Foreign incursions and reorganization
Joseon's isolation policies allowed the military to fire on foreign ships. When the
Organization
The command system of the army was that one or two provincial commanders from each province commanded a provincial base, and each county and city had a commander. The Joseon Army comprises foot soldiers, archers, musketeers, artillery, cavalry, and elite soldiers, the Pengbaesu and Gabsa. The Pengbaesu are shield-bearing foot soldiers. The Gabsa was the highest caliber of soldiers who served as elite foot soldiers and cavalry (or mounted infantry). In a typical battle formation, a high-ranking officer leads Joseon troops. A mid-ranking officer with two low-ranking officers beside him leads a battle formation consisting of Pengbaesu in the front, gunners following them, spearmen behind them, and archers in the rear. The Gapsa protects the formation on the left and right flanks on foot or horses. Their officers in the Joseon army came exclusively from the yangban, and the king appointed them. Still, they valued scholarship over war as something unworthy of a Confucian gentleman-scholar.[23] The quality of Korean generals varies. Some Korean officers being able, and others being men who had not devoted much time to the study of war, preferred archery, writing, practicing their calligraphy, and reading Confucian classics.[24]
Border Defense Council of Joseon
The Border Defense Council of Joseon was a supreme administrative organ established by the central government after the Disturbance of the Three Ports. It allowed the higher military officers, the Jibyeonsa Jaesang (지변사재상; 知邊司宰相), to participate in the process of establishing security maneuvers to meticulously keep a keen eye on the issues of the border.
National defense systems
The Joseon Government established various defense systems to set up provincial armies and raise militias and coordinate the central army.
Jingwan system
The Jingwan system was a provincial defense system that dates back to the Goryeo Dynasty, building fortresses in strategically important places. Still, it leaves some parts of the nations open to invasion, and if one falls, it will be catastrophic in any war. In 1457 A.D, King Sejo reshuffled the defense system to secure as many defensive fortresses as possible to enhance the defensive depth. It comprises a Jujin, the main fortress commanded by a Byeongsa, a provincial military commander who takes a regional defense and orders lower unit commanders. A Geojin, a medium-sized local administrative unit commanded by a Byeongmajeoljesa or Cheomjeoljesa (Geojin Military Commander) between the provincial capital and small local towns called Jejins, who are commanded by the chief local magistrates or a military commander. Using this strategic composition, a Jingwan fights and defend their provinces, and every province has several independent Jingwans. Under this system, the roles of local commanders were to be stationed at their post, know the local topography inside and out, draft the operation plan, train local soldiers, and defend their defensive quarter by mobilizing their local soldiers in the case of conflict. However, when there was a massive invasion, there were not enough soldiers to defend their provinces as it was also a dispersed-force defense system. It requires the concentrated use of forced local forces to defend their defense perimeters, and the Bupiljeoktajinjijobeob rule prevents provinces from coming to each other's aid. They requested military commanders from the central government who did not know a familiar province's terrain.[25]
Jeseungbangryak system
Joseon army mobilizes its troops through the Jeseungbangryak system. It allowed the military commanders from the central government to control assembled troops from the main army to the local and provincial armies. But, local officers could not individually respond to a foreign invasion outside their jurisdiction until a higher ranking general, appointed by the king's court, arrived with a newly mobilized army.[25][26] It was a highly inefficient arrangement since the nearby forces would remain stationary until the mobile border commander arrived on the scene and took control.[26] Secondly, as the appointed General often came from an outside region. The general was unlikely unfamiliar with the natural environment, the available technology, and staffing of the invaded region.[26] Finally, as the government never maintained the main army, new and ill-trained recruits conscripted during war constituted a significant part of the army.[26]
Sogo system
Garrison Command System
After the
Hyang'yong system
A decentralized military organization created to raise and mobilize provincial armies to defend the borders and maintain public order in the local regions. The provincial army was responsible for maintaining public order and defending against external threats, such as raids by bandits or foreign invasions. In times of crisis, the central government could also mobilize the provincial armies to support the central army in fighting against external threats. The system was based on the principle of local self-defense. Under this system, each province had its own army, which was organized and maintained by the local government. The governor-general of each province was responsible for both civil and military affairs, and had the power to raise and maintain a provincial army.[29] The provincial army was composed of soldiers who were recruited from the local population such as mostly poor commoners and enslaved people pressed into service through corvée.[25] The soldiers were trained and equipped by the local government and organized into units such as regiments, battalions, and companies, and were commanded by officers who were appointed by the governor-general. The ranks and organization of the provincial army were similar to those of the central army, but with some variations. However, the system was also criticized for being decentralized and inefficient, and for hindering the central government's ability to mobilize the military in times of crisis.[29] As a result, many literati and officials made periodic efforts to reform the military organization of the Joseon Dynasty numerous times,[25] including the centralization of the military and the establishment of a standing army. Despite these criticisms, the Hyang'yong system continued to be an important part of the Joseon Dynasty's military organization until the end of the dynasty in the late 19th century.[29]
Army units
In the Joseon Army, there are army units between the Jeon-gi (前期, "pre-period") and Hu-gi (後期, "post-period"). Jeon-gi is based on the Owi (오위) system established during the Munjong period.
Hangul | Hanja | Romanization | English | Description | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
위 | 衛 | Wi | Corps | A corps-level unit consisting of five Bu units. It is similar to the current division. The commander is called "Wijang" (위장), a 2nd-rank officer. | |
부 | 部 | Bu | Division | A division-level unit consisting of four Tong units. It is similar to the current brigade or division within a division. The commander is called "Bujang" (부장), equivalent to the rank of 6th-rank officer. | |
통 | 哨 | Tong | Regiment | A regiment-level unit consisting of five Yeo units. It is similar to the current battalion, and the commander is called "Tongjang" (통장). | |
여 | 旅 | Yeo | Battalion | A battalion-level unit consisting of five Dae units. It is similar to the current company. The commander is called "Yeosu" (여수), an officer of the 8th rank specializing in cavalry or infantry, often promoted from the ranks. | |
대 | 隊 | Dae | Company | A company-level unit consisting of five O units. The commander is called "Daejeong" (대정), a non-commissioned officer of the administrative class. The deputy commander is called "Daebu" (대부), a non-commissioned officer of the administrative class specializing in physical training. It is similar to a current platoon. | |
오 | 伍 | O | Fire Team | The lowest-level unit consisting of five soldiers. The commander is called "Ojang" (오장), and Ojang is a non-commissioned officer. In terms of personnel numbers, it corresponds to the current "jo" (조) unit, which has 43 soldiers. |
Hangul | Hanja | Romanization | English | Description | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
영 | 營 | Yang | Corps | A corps-level unit consisting of five Bu or five Sa units. The former corresponds to the current division, and the latter corresponds to the current regiment. The commander is called "Daejang" (대장), or "Sa" (사). Under the commander, there is a deputy commander and chief of staff equivalent to a senior staff officer, called "Junggun" (중군). The central corps belonged to the Ogunyeong (오군영) and received orders from the Daejang and Sa, while the regional corps belonged to the respective regional military commands or camps and received orders from the local officials or military officers. | |
부 | 部 | Bu | Division | A division-level unit consisting of five Sa units. It is similar to the current division. The commander is called "Cheonchong" (천총). It was not widely seen in the So'o Army and was mostly seen in the O Army. | |
사 | 司 | Sa | Regiment | A regiment-level unit consisting of five Cho units. It is similar to the current battalion. The commander is called "Pachong" (파총). Pachong could be either an officer or a civilian official. In some cases, local officials in charge of military affairs in a specific area were appointed as Pachong, such as the case of the commander of the military forces in a county. In such cases, they were referred to as "gyeompachong" (겸파총), meaning "dual Pachong." In reality, the commanders of the Anyeongcheong and Geumwiyeong were appointed as gyeompachong and led the troops. | |
초 | 哨 | Cho | Battalion | A battalion-level unit consisting of three Gi units. It is similar to the current company. The commander is called "Chogwan" (초관), a non-commissioned officer of the 9th rank. | |
기 | 旗 | Gi | Company | A company-level unit consisting of three Dae units. It is similar to the current squad. The commander is called "Gichong" (기총), an 8th-rank officer specializing in administration. The Gichong is also someone who has been promoted from the ranks. | |
대 | 隊 | Dae | Platoon | A platoon-level unit consisting of one Hwabyeong (화병, military police) and 10 regular soldiers, commanded by a "Daejang" (대장). The Daejang is an 8th-rank officer and is usually someone who has been promoted from the ranks. | |
오 | 伍 | O | Fire Team | A unit consists of 5 men led by an "Ojang" (오장), and an Ojang is a non-commissioned officer. |
Ranks
The highest rank of the army was the Dowonsu (都元帥). The Commander in chief of all 8 provinces' armed forces. A temporary rank, the rank that commanded the local army. The scope of the command is flexible. Although it was the highest rank, it is said that the number of troops that Dowonsu could actually command was considerably small due to the temporary performance that was only permanent during wartime and the command system that was not unified into one. The second highest rank was the Samdo Sunbyonsa, the Commander of three provinces – Kyongsang, Cholla and Chung Chong. The third highest rank was the Sunbyonsa, a provincial commander. The fourth highest rank was the Pangosa: a county commander defending strategic points.
Hangul | Hanja | Romanization | English | Description | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
위장 | 衛 | Wijang | General | A 2nd-rank officer that leads five Bu units. | |
부장 | 部 | Bujang | Colonel | A 6th-rank officer that leads four tong units. | |
통장 | 哨 | Tongjang | Major | An officer that leads five Yeo units. | |
여수 | 旅 | Yeosu | Captain | An officer of the 8th rank specializing in cavalry or infantry, often promoted from the ranks leading five Dae units. | |
대정 | 隊 | Daejeong | Sergeant | A Non-commissioned administrative officer that leads five O units. The deputy commander is called "Daebu" (대부), another non-commissioned officer of the administrative class specializing in physical training. | |
오장 | 伍 | Ojang | Corporal | A non-commissioned officer leading of five soldiers. The commander is called "Ojang" (오장), and Ojang is a non-commissioned officer. |
Hangul | Hanja | Romanization | English | Description | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
대장/사 | 大將/史 | Daejang/Sa | General | An officer that leads five Bu or five Sa units. A deputy commander and chief of staff equivalent to a senior staff officer, called "Junggun" (중군). | |
천총 | 千摠 | Cheonchong | Brigadier General | An officer that leads five Sa units. | |
파총 | 把摠 | Pachong | Colonel | An officer that leads five Cho units. In such cases, they were referred to as "gyeompachong" (겸파총), meaning "dual Pachong." In reality, the commanders of the Anyeongcheong and Geumwiyeong were appointed as gyeompachong and led the troops. | |
초관 | 哨官 | Chogwan | Major | A non-commissioned officer of the 9th rank leading three Gi units. | |
기총 | 旗槍 | Gichong | Captain | An 8th-rank officer specializing in administration leading three Dae units. The Gichong is also someone who has been promoted from the ranks. | |
대정 | 隊 | Daejeong | Sergeant | An 8th-rank officer and is usually someone who has been promoted from the ranks that leads one Hwabyeong (화병, military police) and 10 regular soldiers. | |
오장 | 伍 | Ojang | Corporal | A non-commissioned officer leading of five soldiers. The commander is called "Ojang" (오장), and Ojang is a non-commissioned officer. |
Royal Guard
The Royal Guards of the Joseon Dynasty were an elite group of soldiers responsible for protecting the King and the royal family and defending the Geumjung (禁裏) (or Geumjung (禁中), the king's residence. They number up to 50–200 men tasked with guarding the palace and escorting the king. They were divided into several different units, each with their own specific responsibilities. Naegeumwi (내금위), the inner guards who protected the King's quarters and attended to his personal needs. They were chosen from the most loyal and trusted soldiers and were highly trained in martial arts. Gyeonggukdae (경국대), the elite guards who were responsible for protecting the King and the royal palace. They were also responsible for maintaining order and preventing unauthorized entry into the palace.[31] Gyeomsabok (겸사복) were the guards who patrolled the palace grounds and outer walls. They were responsible for maintaining order and preventing unauthorized entry into the palace. Woorimwi (우림위) were the archers who guarded the palace gates and were responsible for shooting arrows at any potential intruders. Jungrowi (중로위) were the guards who escorted the King and other important officials on official business outside of the palace. In 1666, King Hyeongjong established the Howechung. A select group of elite soldiers in the Joseon Dynasty who were responsible for protecting the king's seal and other important royal documents.[32] They also served as the elite unit of the central army as Joseon Kings assigned a number of units to serve on the field.[33]
Restriction Guard
In 1623, King Hyeongjong established the Restriction Guard (Geumgun) by integrating the Naegeumwi, Gyeomsabok, Woorimwi and the Jungrowi into the Office of the Restriction Guards (Geumguncheong). The Restriction Guard, also known as Geumgun in Korean, were a select group of highly trained soldiers who served as the personal bodyguards of the Joseon Dynasty's royal family. They were responsible for protecting the king and his immediate family members, as well as important government officials and palaces. The Restriction Guard members were selected from the most skilled and loyal soldiers in the kingdom. They underwent rigorous training in martial arts, archery, horseback riding, and other combat skills. In addition to their combat training, the Restriction Guard also received education in Confucianism, the dominant philosophy of the time. The members of the Restriction Guard were distinguished by their distinctive black uniforms and their use of black horses. They were also equipped with special weapons, such as the geom, a type of Korean sword, and the gakgung, a type of Korean bow. The Restriction Guard played an important role in maintaining order and stability within the kingdom, and they were known for their loyalty to the royal family and their willingness to sacrifice their lives in defense of the throne.[32][34]
The Office of the Restriction Guards, also known as Geumguncheong in Korean, was the administrative headquarters of the Restriction Guard during the Joseon Dynasty. It was responsible for overseeing the training, deployment, and management of the Restriction Guard. The Geumguncheong was located within the palace complex and was headed by a high-ranking government official known as the Geumgunjang, who was appointed by the king. The Geumgunjang was responsible for overseeing the day-to-day operations of the Restriction Guard and ensuring that it fulfilled its duties and responsibilities. The Geumguncheong was also responsible for managing the finances of the Restriction Guard, including its budget for weapons, equipment, and supplies. In addition, it played a key role in coordinating with other government agencies to maintain law and order within the kingdom. The Geumguncheong was an important institution in the Joseon Dynasty, as the Restriction Guard played a critical role in maintaining the stability of the kingdom and protecting the royal family.[34]
Dragon Tiger Guard
In 1755, King Yeongjo renamed the Restriction Guard into the Dragon Tiger Guard (Yonghoyeong); its total number of members increased to 700. It was a special military unit in the Joseon Dynasty that was responsible for protecting the royal palace and the king's person. The name "Yonghoyeong" means "dragon tiger guard" and refers to the two mythical creatures that were believed to symbolize strength and power. Its members were selected from the most skilled soldiers in the kingdom. They underwent rigorous training in martial arts, archery, and other combat skills, as well as in the use of firearms, which were introduced to Korea during this period. The Dragon Tiger Guard was distinguished by its distinctive red uniforms and its use of red banners and flags. Its members were also equipped with special weapons, such as matchlock muskets and bamboo spears. The Dragon Guard played a critical role in maintaining the security of the royal palace and the king's person, as well as in suppressing rebellions and maintaining law and order throughout the kingdom. Its members were known for their bravery, loyalty, and martial prowess, and they were considered to be among the most elite soldiers in the Joseon Dynasty.[34]
Jangyongyoung
In 1793, King Jeongjo established the Jangyongyoung. The unit was composed of soldiers who were selected from the common people rather than the aristocratic class, and it was intended to serve as a standing army that could be deployed quickly to defend the kingdom in times of crisis. The Jangyongyeong Guard was named after a famous military treatise written during the Goryeo Dynasty, which emphasized the importance of military training and discipline. The soldiers in the Jangyongyeong Guard underwent rigorous training in martial arts, archery, and other combat skills, and they were equipped with modern firearms, such as muskets and rifles. Unlike the Restriction Guard and the Dragon Guard, which were composed of soldiers from the aristocracy, the Jangyongyeong Guard was open to commoners who demonstrated exceptional martial skills and loyalty to the king. This was a significant departure from the traditional social hierarchy of the Joseon Dynasty, which placed a premium on aristocratic birth and education. The Jangyongyeong Guard played an important role in defending the kingdom against external threats. It also played a role in suppressing domestic rebellions and maintaining law and order throughout the kingdom. The establishment of the Jangyongyeong Guard was one of King Jeongjo's most significant military reforms, and it helped to modernize and strengthen the Joseon Dynasty's military capabilities.[35][34]
Wanggung Sumunjang
The King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers, Wanggung Sumunjang (왕궁수문장), or Sumungun, also known as the Suwonjang or simply the Suwon, were a special unit of the Royal Guards in the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. The Sumungun were responsible for guarding the gates and walls of the five royal palaces and Hanseong's city gates, and would also patrol the surrounding areas to prevent any unauthorized entry.[31] They were highly skilled in martial arts and weaponry, and were trained to use a variety of weapons including swords, spears, and bows. In 1469, King Yejong established the King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers as a separate organization from the main body of the Royal Guards.[31] King Yeongjo established the Sumunjangcheong (守門將廳) to manage them. They were recruited from the commoner class and were often referred to as "commoner soldiers" or "lowborn soldiers", as opposed to the aristocratic soldiers who made up the majority of the Royal Guards. Despite their lower social status, the Sumungun were known for their fierce loyalty to the royal family and their skill in combat. The Sumungun were known for their distinctive uniforms, which included a red jacket with black trim and a black hat with a white feather. Their uniforms were designed to be both practical and stylish, and were often decorated with intricate patterns and designs. In addition to their duties as guards, the Sumungun also played a role in various official ceremonies and events within the royal court. For example, they would participate in military parades and other public events, and would also serve as escorts for members of the royal family.[31][36]
Central Army
The central army of Joseon, also known as the Royal Army or the Capital Army, was the primary military force of the Joseon dynasty, which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1897. The central army was responsible for the defense of the kingdom and the maintenance of law and order. The central army was headquartered in the capital city of Hanyang (now Seoul) and was under the direct control of the king. The king appointed a military commander, known as the Saejeong, to oversee the operations of the central army. The soldiers in the central army were recruited from throughout the kingdom and were trained in military tactics and skills. They were organized into several units, including infantry, cavalry, and artillery. The central army was equipped with a range of weapons and equipment, including rifles, swords, and cannons. The central army played an important role in defending the kingdom against foreign powers and maintaining internal order.
King Taejo established the central army (Gyeonggun) in 1392, and his army, which overthrew the Goryeo dynasty, served as its basis. In 1393, he established the Three Armies Headquarters (Ŭihŭng Samgunbu). It was the primary military force in the early Joseon Dynasty and had about 16,000 men initially, but in 1448 it was increased to about 28,000 men. The headquarters was renamed the Five Military Commands (Owi, 오위; 五衛) by King Sejo, making it the basis of the central army. After the Imjin War, King Seonjo replaced the Five Commands for its ineffectiveness with the Capital Defense Standing Army (수도 방어 상비군) consisting of Five Military Camps (ogunyeong, 오군영; 五軍營) and the Escort Office (Howicheong) to defend the capital and the
It was involved in several major conflicts throughout the Joseon dynasty, including the Imjin War (1592–1598) against Japan and the Qing invasions of Joseon (1636–1637). Although the central army was the primary military force of the Joseon dynasty, it was not always well-funded or well-equipped. The soldiers often had to provide their own weapons and equipment, and they were not always paid on time. Nevertheless, the soldiers in the central army were dedicated to their duty and played an important role in the defense and stability of the kingdom.[30]
Pengbaesu
Pengbaesu (팽배수/彭排手),
Gapsa
The armored soldiers (Gapsa (갑사)) are the
They were first established during the reign of King Taejong (r. 1400–1418) as a personal guard for the king and his palace. Initially, they were composed of soldiers who had distinguished themselves in battle. Still, their selection process became more rigorous over time, with candidates undergoing physical and martial tests to ensure their suitability for the unit. They were small in numbers, with only a few hundred members at any given time. They were divided into three ranks: Gapsa daegam (甲士大監), Gapsa junggam (甲士中監), and Gapsa sogam (甲士少監), with the first rank being the most senior. Members of the Gapsa were exempt from taxes and corvée labor. They were given special privileges, such as publicly carrying weapons and using specific honorific titles.[40]
The unit had several branches, each with its specific duties. The Gyeonggapsa (경갑사) was the main branch of the Gapsa and was stationed in the capital city of Seoul. Their primary duty was to guard the king and the royal palace. They were considered the most prestigious branch of the Gapsa and included the most highly skilled and respected unit members. The Yanggyegapsa (양계갑사) was stationed in the border regions of Pyeongan-do and Hamgyeong-do. Their duties included protecting the border, suppressing local uprisings, and maintaining order in these remote regions. The Gigapsa (기갑사) was a cavalry unit of the Gapsa. Their primary duty was to provide the main army with rapid response and reconnaissance capabilities. They were highly skilled in horseback riding and were often used for surprise attacks against enemy positions. The Chakhogapsa (짜호갑사) was a branch of the Gapsa that specialized in hunting and killing tigers. Tigers were a significant threat to the rural population of Korea, and the Chakhogapsa were trained to deal with this danger. They were known for their bravery and skill in hunting tigers and were highly respected by the locals.[37][40]
Gapsa were initially chosen from among the children of the Yangban and underwent rigorous training and performed several menial duties such as preparing horses and armaments. They had to have more than a certain amount of wealth to take the qualification exam, the army officers recruit the gapsa based on their martial arts proficiency. When a Gapsa completes his military service at Gyeonggapsa, he receives a commission and a 4th rank according to the Geogwan Act. Instead of being treated as a bureaucrat of a certain class and receiving a salary from the state, the military, horses, and servants' food expenses were all on their own. However, filling the Gapsa ranks was complex due to the ruling class's avoidance of military service.[40] For this reason, the Joseon government, which had to save the budget, tried to increase the number of Gapsa by increasing the lower ranks. As a result, at the time of King Seongjong and the publication of Gyeongguk Daejeon, the number of Gapsa increases to 14,800 by 1475, but the standing army, which actually has to maintain a certain number, is not managed, causing a problem that most of the numbers are falsely stated just before the Imjin War.[41]
Five Guards
At the end of the period of chaos after the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, Joseon was mainly focused on dealing with the looting of the Jurchen people and Japanese pirates in the north. During the reign of King Jeongjong in 1400, the private army system was overthrown, and during the reign of King Sejo in 1457, a unit called Five Guards (Owi/오위/五衛) was formed, which continued until the Imjin War.[42]
The Five Guards ("Owi"; 오위; 五衛) were the five main divisions of the central army during the Joseon Dynasty in Korea. Joseon had a conscripted light infantry, standing army, and an elite cavalry-oriented organization, especially Horse Archer. It was specialized in dealing with nomadic looters.[42] The Five Guards was an important part of the social and political structure of the Joseon Dynasty, and it played a key role in maintaining public order and stability in the capital city of Hanyang, and its surrounding areas. The term "Owi" literally means "five guards" or "five defenses." The Owi system was established in the 15th century during the reign of King Sejong, and it remained in place until after the Imjin War when the Joseon Army underwent significant reforms. Each division consists of four brigades, each with about 2,000 gapsa constituting the core force among them and the Five Commands administers them through the General Headquarters (Owido), recruiting people from all provinces and the capital.[43]
The five divisions of the Owi were:[43]
- Jeongnan Owi (정남오위) – responsible for the southern part of the capital, including the royal palace.
- Jeongbuk Owi (정북오위) – responsible for the northern part of the capital, including the city gates.
- Seo Owi (서오위) – responsible for the western part of the capital, including the markets and commercial districts.
- Dong Owi (동오위) – responsible for the eastern part of the capital, including the government offices.
- Nam Owi (남오위) – responsible for the southeastern part of the capital, including the rivers and waterways.
Each division of the Owi was headed by a "Owi daegam" (오위대감), who was responsible for the overall management of the division, including recruitment, training, and deployment of soldiers. The Owi were composed of soldiers who were selected from the commoner and noble class. However, the selection process was rigorous and involved physical and martial tests, as well as a background check to ensure that the candidates did not have any criminal record or disloyalty to the king. They were also responsible for protecting the royal palace, respond to emergencies such as fires and natural disasters, and serve as a reserve force for the main army and were called upon to participate in military campaigns when necessary.[43]
Five Army Camps
The
Capital Defense Standing Army
Capital Defense Standing Army (수도 방어 상비군) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Hanyang, Gyeonggido | Escort Office (호위청) | 1,000 | 45,000 | |
Royal Guards Command (어영청) | 6,200 | |||
Command of the Northern Approaches (총융청) | 2,000 | |||
Military Training Command (훈련도감) | 5,000 | |||
Royal Defense Command (수어청) | 12,700 |
The Capital Defense Standing Army was a highly trained and well-equipped military force responsible for the defense of the capital city of Hanyang (modern-day Seoul) and its surrounding areas. The Capital Defense Standing Army was established in the late 16th century, during the reign of King Seonjo, and was made up of soldiers who were selected from the various military units throughout the kingdom and were trained in the latest military tactics and equipment. It was responsible for maintaining law and order in the capital city and protecting it from external threats, including invasions from foreign forces. It was tasked with enforcing the king's laws and regulations, as well as protecting the royal family and the officials. The Capital Defense Standing Army was equipped with a variety of weapons and equipment, including firearms, artillery, and fortifications. It was also responsible for maintaining an effective system of communication and intelligence gathering, which allowed it to respond quickly and effectively to potential threats. One of the key functions of the Capital Defense Standing Army was to maintain a state of readiness at all times. The soldiers were required to undergo regular training and drills to ensure that they were prepared to respond to any potential threats. They were also responsible for maintaining the fortifications and other defensive structures in and around the capital city. During times of war, the Capital Defense Standing Army played a key role in defending the capital city and its surrounding areas. It was often supplemented by other military units from throughout the kingdom, including the Escort Office, Royal Guards Command, the Command of the Northern Approaches, and the Military Training Command.[49]
Martial Arts Department
The
The establishment process of the Martial Arts Department is detailed in King
Three Military Garrisons
The
Provincial armies
The provincial armies of Joseon were military forces that were established in different regions of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. These forces were distinct from the central army of Joseon, which was based in the capital city and was responsible for defending the entire kingdom. The provincial armies were created to provide additional defense and security for specific regions of Korea. They were organized and led by the local governors of each province, who were responsible for raising and training soldiers for the army and overseeing its operations. The soldiers in the provincial armies were recruited from the local population and were often farmers or other commoners who had some military training or experience. They were responsible for maintaining law and order in their region, as well as defending against any potential threats, such as bandits or foreign invaders. The provincial armies were organized into several units, including infantry, cavalry, and archers. They were equipped with a range of weapons and equipment, including rifles, swords, and spears. The soldiers received training in military tactics and skills, as well as discipline and loyalty to their local governor and the Joseon dynasty. Although the provincial armies were not as well-funded or well-equipped as the central army, they played an important role in defending and protecting the different regions of Korea during the Joseon period. They were often the first line of defense against potential threats and were an important part of the overall military strategy of the Joseon dynasty.[29]
Northwestern Frontier Provincial Deployment Army
Northwestern Frontier Provincial Deployment Army (서북병 배치 지방군) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
P'yŏngando | Cheongcheon River Provincial Army (청천강 지방군) | 4,000 | 7,600 | |
Hwanghaedo | Hwanghaedo Army (황해도 군) | 2,000 | ||
Chungcheongdo Jeollado Gyeongsangdo |
Hasangdo Army (하상도 군) | 1,600 |
The Northwestern Frontier Provincial Deployment Army, or 서북병 배치 지방군 (Seobukbyeong Baechi Jibanggun) in Korean, was a military force that was stationed in the northwestern region of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. The force was established in response to the threat of invasion by the Jurchen tribes, who lived in the region that is now known as Manchuria. The Northwestern Frontier Provincial Deployment Army was responsible for defending the border region and maintaining law and order in the area. The force was organized into several units, including infantry, cavalry, and archers. The soldiers were recruited from the local population and were trained in military tactics and skills. The Northwestern Frontier Provincial Deployment Army played an important role in defending the border region from invasion by the Jurchen tribes. However, the force was disbanded in the late 16th century due to a lack of funding and resources.[59]
Royal Provincial Army
Royal Provincial Army (각지 근왕병) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
P'yŏngando | P'yŏngando Royal Army (평안도 근왕병) | 5,000 | 35,000 | |
Chungcheongdo | Chungcheongdo Royal Army (충청도 근왕병) | 7,000 | ||
Gangwondo | Gangwondo Royal Army (황해도 근왕병) | 7,000 | ||
Jeollado | Jeollado Royal Army (전라도 근왕병) | 8,000 | ||
Gyeongsangdo | Gyeongsangdo Royal Army (하상도 근왕병) | 8,000 |
The Royal Provincial Army, or 각지 근왕병 (Gakji Geunwangbyeong) in Korean, was a military force established during the Joseon dynasty to protect the royal family and the royal palaces located in various provinces throughout Korea. The force was made up of soldiers who were selected for their loyalty and their ability to protect the royal family. The Royal Provincial Army was organized and led by the local governor of each province where a royal palace was located. The governor was responsible for raising and training the soldiers for the army and overseeing its operations. The army was made up of soldiers recruited from the local population and was not part of the central army of Joseon. The Royal Provincial Army played an important role in protecting the royal family and the royal palaces from potential threats, both internal and external. However, the force was disbanded in the late 19th century due to a lack of funding and resources.[60]
Equipment
Uniforms
Soldiers and military officials wear military uniforms (kunbok, 군복; (軍服)). The peasant soldiers wore black military robes (hyeopsu 협수; 夾袖) with white trimes and light blue long sleeveless vests (jeonbok, 전복; 戰服) representing the central army and provincial armies. White vests or various colors are worn by soldiers of the Military Training Agency. Red vests representing military police and yellow vests for military bands. Commissioned officers (usually military yangban) wore a red and yellow (or organge) military officials coat (dongdari, 동다리; 同多里) for middle to high-ranking officers and red and blue dongdari for junior-ranking officers with a black jeonbok and a military belt (jeondae, 전대; 戰帶).[61] During emergencies and wartime, officers, Pengbaesu, and Gabsa wore war clothing (yungbok, 융복; 戎服) distinguishing rank by color.[62] Red yungbok with a blue military belt represents high-ranking officers. Blue yungbok with a red military belt represents mid-ranking officers. Black yungbok with a black military belt represents junior ranking officers and elite soldiers and cavalry. High and middle-ranking officers wore hats called jeonrip. Soldiers of all ranks and low-ranking officers wore hats called beonggeoji.[63]
Armor
In the early dynasty, the army wore chainmail (swaejagab, 쇄자갑; 鎖子甲) and plate and mail armor (gyeongbeongap, 경번갑; 鏡幡甲) from the late Goryeo dynasty. The Joseon military policy required peasant conscripts to provide their armor. Chain mail, paper armor (jigap, 지갑; 紙甲), scale armour, and padded armor made from cotton layers, iron plates, and (or) leather (eomshimgap, 엄심갑; 掩心甲) serving as a similar function to the Gambeson. They were popular among light infantry and peasant soldiers in the provincial armies as they offered body protection at lower prices. Sets of leather armor worn by peasant soldiers are called Pigabju (피갑주; 皮甲胄).[64][65]
The central army's Pengbaesu wore chain mail or mail and plate armour. Still, they, along with the Gabsa wore a traditional form of Korean armor that persisted with the Mongols' influences during the 13~14th centuries, lamellar armor (jalgap, 찰갑; 札甲). It was a complete metallic armor set. It was composed of a helmet resembling European kettle hats with attached neck defenses of mail or lamellar, body armor reaching down to the thighs or knees, and a set of shoulder guards that protected the upper arm.[66]
In the 16th century, the dujeonggap (두정갑; 頭釘甲) is the Korean equivalent of brigandine. The Pengbaesu, Gabsa, and peasant conscripts wore brigandine made from cotton layers, and the plates weaved into the brigandine were either iron, copper, or leather. It became the primary form of Korean armor and often reached below the knees when worn. The helmet assumes a conical shape and has three brigandine flaps that protect the sides and back of the head. The high-ranking officers wore brass scales, and middle-low-ranking officers wore iron. The elite soldiers and the cavalry wore iron or copper in the main army, while peasant soldiers wore leather in the provincial army.[67]
In the 19th century, the Joseon Army's armor usage declined as heavy cavalry and generals relied on armor while foot soldiers and light cavalry wore only uniforms. In 1867, an attempt was made to develop anti-ballistic armor called Myeonje baegab, made from 13 to 30 sewed sheets of textiles and cotton combined into a thick vest to the overwhelming firepower of rifles fielded by Western powers such as France and the United States. Although this attempt was partially in line with the current method of producing anti-ballistic vests, it does not appear to have proved effective. In the late 1870s, Korean armor fell into disuse completely.
-
Sets of leather armor, Pigabju, worn by the peasant soldiers.
-
Swaejagab, chain mail from the Joseon Dynasty worn by peasant conscripts
-
Jalgap, the lamellar armor of Joseon worn by the Pengbaesu, and the Gabsa
-
Korean mail and plate armor worn by the Pengbaesu
-
armor and helmet. Joseon period, 19th century. Musée Guimet.
-
Joseon dynasty Dujeong-gap
-
Modern reenactors wearing a complete Dujeong-gap set. While conventionally shown as red, the fabric could be of various colors.
-
Brass scale armor worn by military officers
-
Front of the Myeonje baegab
Melee weapons
The standard Korean sword was the hwando, a short and light curved sword commonly used by Joseon soldiers during peacetime. The standard Korean spear was the dangpa, a 7–8 ft three-pronged trident with a spear tip in the middle used for close defensive combat to trap an enemy's sword between two of the three prongs.[68] Another polearm used in the army was the jangchang (장창; 長槍), a four-meter spear wielded by infantry, and cavalry, for thrusting and drawing while moving forward and backward. But due to its long lengthen, they cannot use this spear for throwing. The woldo was a 9 ft curved-bladed polearm with a spike at the end of the handle and a tassel or feather attached to the blade. The woldo was mostly used by cavalry for its heavy striking power while on horseback. The infantry but mostly cavalry used the pyeongon, a 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in)-long flail made from hardwood stick, painted red, acting as the handle for a chain attached to a shaft with iron nails.[24] The Pengbaesu carry a pengbae (팽배; 彭排), a round shield, or a deungpaea (등패; 藤牌), a rattan shield along with a sword.[citation needed]
-
Hwando, standard sword of Joseon military
-
Dangpa, standard polearm of the Joseon Military
-
Jangchang, standard long spear of the Joseon Military wielded by both infantry and cavalry
-
Woldo, a polearm wielded by mostly the cavalry
-
Pyeongon, a two-section staff flail wielded by mostly the cavalry
-
Shields from the Joseon Dynasty, two sizes of Pavise, and a Pengbae, the round shield.
-
Deungpae, a rattan shield
Archery
Bows and arrows
Joseon foot soldiers and cavalry often fought as archers with their bows which had a range of 450 metres (1,480 ft).[24] Archers also used the pyeonjeon, a short arrow, and the tongah to help guide it as part of the standard kit of Chosun era archers. They can fire at an extended range of 350 meters and flatter trajectories with a faster velocity and penetrating power than regular arrows.[69] Their quivers held 20 arrows and 10 pyeonjeon arrows.[70]
Crossbows
Various types of
Gunpowder
In 1395, several weapons were in use: a series of cannons called the daejanggunpo, ijanggunpo, and samjanggunpo, a shell-firing mortar called the jillyeopo, a series of yuhwa, juhwa, and chokcheonhwa rockets, which were the forerunners of the singijeon, and a signal gun called the shinpo.[71] These cannons improved during Taejong's rule. Among the people responsible for the developments was Ch'oe Hae-san, son of Ch'oe Mu-sŏn. Yi Si-ae's Rebellion was the first time in Joseon history the Joseon Army utilized many different kinds of (gunpowder) weapons. Weapons, including the shield walls for defending against chongtong and chongtong to destroy the shield walls and hwacha for significant damage in massive fire combats during battles of Yi Si-ae's Rebellion. During the Imjin War, they mainly used the cannon in siege action and defending castles. The Nanjung ilgi says that many captured and used by the Japanese realized their full potential. There were few instances of Koreans employing artillery in the field, with largely ineffective results.[72] Some irregular Korean units with government-supplied weapons fired explosive shells from mortars, but this occurred only in isolated instances.[72]
Hwacha
The Koreans use the hwacha – multiple rocket-propelled arrows. The hwacha consisted of a two-wheeled cart carrying a board filled with holes into which the soldiers inserted singijeons. It could fire up to 200 singijeon, a type of rocket arrow, all at once. The hwacha also has a variant called the munjong hwacha. It can simultaneously fire 100 rocket arrows or 200 small chongtong bullets with changeable modules. Another variant was the mangam hwacha, a boxed cart with large faces of a dokkaebi painted on all three sides of the cart. Armed with forty seungja-chongtongs with fourteen in the front and thirteen on the left and right sides, only two soldiers can manage it, one firing the rows and the other reloads. They can fire 600 bullets, with each barrel holding 15 shots.[73] The hwacha mainly was deployed during the Siege of Pyongyang in January 1593 and the Battle of Haengju in March 1593.
-
Hwacha launch pad, ignitors placed in the narrow section of each arrow to fire.
-
Plans for Hwacha assembly and disassembly. Left mid and below are the front and rear of Singijeon rocket launcher modules; things at right are the front and back of Munjong organ gun modules (Gukjo-orye-seorye, 1474).
-
Mangam Hwacha firing its gun barrels at the Jangseong Army Artillery School demonstration.
Cannons
The cheon "heaven" or "sky," Ji "earth," Hyeon "black," and Hwang "yellow" or "gold" names are not significant, being the first four characters of the
-
This Cheonja-chongtong is the largest size.
-
Jijachongtong, the second largest cannon in Mid Joseon Dynasty.
-
This Hyeonja-chongtong is a middle-sized cannon.
-
Byeolhwangja-chongtong, which was one of the miniature cannons
-
Large mortar with a round stone
-
Breech-loading swivel gun
-
A hong'ipo cannon introduced from the Netherlands by Hendrick Hamel and others in the 1650s
Guns
In 1432, the Joseon dynasty under the reign of Sejong the Great introduced world's first handgun, named the seungja chongtong (총통) or "victory gun," which serves as a standard Korean gun. It fires bullets, 15 small pellets, and an iron-tipped arrow. The gunners used the seungja chongtong as a two-handed club in melee combat. Other variants were the soseungja chongtong, a handheld cannon attached to a gunstock that fired a bullet and a large arrow; like the seungja, it could only fire by lighting the fuse. The se-chongtong, was a miniature gun held by its cheolheumja (철흠자, iron tong-handle), which allows a quick change of barrel for the next shot, and fires chase-jeon (차세전, a contemporary type of standardized arrow) with a maximum fatal range of 200 footsteps (≈250 meters). The barrel has a total length of 13.8 cm, inner diameter of 0.9 cm, and outer diameter of 1.4 cm. Initially, Joseon considered the gun a failure due to its short effective range, but the chongtong quickly saw use after fielding to the frontier provinces starting in June 1437. The se-chongtong was used by both soldiers of different units and by civilians, including women and children, as a personal defense weapon. The gun was notably used by chetamja (체탐자, special reconnaissance), whose mission was to infiltrate enemy territory, and by carabiniers carrying multiple guns, who benefited from its compact size.[76][77][78] Another variant was the soseungja chongtong, a handheld cannon attached to a gunstock that fired a bullet and a large arrow, but like the seungja it can only fire by lighting the fuse.[79] In 1596, the seungja were phased out in favor of Japanese-style muskets and arquebuses. The Koreans called these jochong (조총/鳥銃), which means 'An accurate gun even shoot down a flying bird.'[79]
-
Seungja-chongtong, a hand cannon
-
Soseungja-chongtong, a handheld cannon attached to a gunstock.
-
Se-chongtong, a small handcannon held by a cheolheumja (철흠자), an iron tong-handle.
-
Jochong (조총/鳥銃), the Korean matchlock musket.
-
Sipyeonjapo, the ten-barreled musket
-
Oyeonjapo, the five-barreled musket
Strategy and tactics
The Joseon Army's defensive strategy was largely influenced by the geography of the Korean Peninsula. The kingdom was surrounded by mountains and seas, which made it difficult for invading armies to penetrate deep into Joseon territory. The Joseon Army took advantage of this natural defense by building fortresses and walls along the borders to protect the kingdom's frontiers. Some of the most famous fortresses include the Namhansanseong Fortress, which protected the southeastern approach to Hanyang (present-day Seoul), and the Hwaseong Fortress, which protected Suwon from invasion.
The use of firearms by the Joseon Army was a significant development in Korean military history. The Joseon Army began to adopt firearms during the late 16th century, after Korean soldiers encountered Portuguese traders who had brought matchlock muskets to the region. The Joseon Army quickly recognized the potential of firearms and began to produce their own matchlock muskets and cannons. By the 17th century, firearms had become an integral part of the Joseon Army's arsenal, and they continued to be used throughout the dynasty.[49]
The Joseon Army's cavalry force consisted of both light and heavy cavalry. Light cavalry units were used for reconnaissance and raiding, while heavy cavalry units were used for charging enemy lines and breaking through enemy defenses. The Joseon Army's cavalry was particularly effective in the mountainous terrain of Korea, where their mobility and speed allowed them to outmaneuver enemy forces.[49]
Joseon's longtime foe, the Jurchens, adopted cavalry mobile warfare and made numerous raids on Joseon's Northern Borders. The Joseon army focused on developing anti-cavalry tactics to counter them. Their main battle tactic is to arm their infantry and cavalry with long-range weaponry to weaken their cavalry charge from a distance and then engage them quickly and fluently. But in an actual combat situation, the cavalry charges into the enemy's spearhead formation and the battle formation.[25]
During the Imjin War, when the army formed their battle positions like the Joseon cavalry formations against the Jurchens, they were withered down by a hail of Japanese arquebuses. Then, the Japanese ashigaru engaged in close-quarters combat. But what the Koreans lack in numbers can make up for it in topography and geography. The
The Joseon Army employed a network of spies and scouts to gather intelligence on enemy forces and their movements. Spies were often used to infiltrate enemy territory and gather information on troop movements, supply lines, and fortifications. Scouts were used to patrol the borders and report any signs of enemy activity. The intelligence gathered by these agents was used to plan defensive and offensive operations and to take advantage of the enemy's weaknesses.[49]
The Joseon Army used various forms of psychological warfare to intimidate enemy forces and boost the morale of their own troops. One of the most common tactics was drumming, where large drums were beaten to create a rhythmic sound that could be heard over long distances. The Joseon Army also used flag waving and shouting to create a sense of fear and confusion among enemy troops. These tactics were particularly effective against inexperienced or poorly disciplined troops.[49]
The Joseon Army sometimes used diplomacy to avoid conflict or to form alliances with neighboring powers. Diplomatic efforts were often led by high-ranking officials, such as the "Uijeongbu" (의정부), who was responsible for foreign affairs. Ambassadors were sent to neighboring kingdoms to negotiate treaties and alliances, and gifts and tribute were often exchanged as a sign of goodwill. Diplomacy was seen as a way to avoid costly and destructive wars and to maintain the stability of the region.[49]
See also
- Joseon Navy
- Joseon Army (late 19th century)
- Joseon Dynasty
- Righteous Army
- Korean–Jurchen border conflicts
- Imjin War
- List of battles during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)
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- ^ The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, Sejong, June 8, 23 Each village should also have weapons manufacturing facilities, and the managers of each village should make weapons according to the government's style, but each generation should be given one pitch, one armor or one eomsimgap, three-fifths of a bow, and two-fifths of a spear to inspect them according to what they have prepared at all times.
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