Menzies government (1949–1966)
Menzies government | |
---|---|
In office | |
19 December 1949 – 26 January 1966 | |
Monarch | George VI Elizabeth II |
Prime Minister | Robert Menzies |
Deputy | Arthur Fadden (1949–1958) John McEwen (1958–1966) |
Party | Liberal Country |
Status | Majority |
Origin | Won 1949 election |
Demise | Menzies' retirement |
Predecessor | Chifley government |
Successor | Holt government |
| ||
---|---|---|
Prime Minister of Australia First term of government (1939–1941) Second term of government (1949–1966)
Ministries
Elections |
||
The Menzies government (1949–1966) refers to the second period of federal executive government of Australia led by Prime Minister
Background
United Australia Party
The United Australia Party had been formed as a new conservative alliance in 1931, with Labor defector
With Australia still suffering the effects of the Great Depression, the newly formed United Australia Party won a landslide victory at 19 December 1931 Election, and the UAP commenced its first term in government in January 1932.[2] The Lyons government won three consecutive elections, pursuing a conservative fiscal policy of balanced budgets and debt reduction, while stewarding Australia out of the Depression.
Lyons death in April 1939 saw
Labor's John Curtin proved a big war time leader and the Curtin government won in a landslide in the 1943 election. In the aftermath of this defeat, the UAP began to disintegrate, and Australian conservatives and anti-socialist liberals looked to form a new political movement to counter the Australian Labor Party.
Foundation of Liberal Party
Fourteen political parties had allied to form the United Australia Party, but disenchantment with the United Australia Party was now widespread. A group of New South Wales members had formed the new "Democratic Party". This new group looked to Robert Menzies to provide leadership.
Menzies had been prime minister as leader of the United Australia Party from 1939 to 1941.[6] From 1942 onward, Menzies had maintained his public profile with his series of "Forgotten People" radio talks, similar to US President Franklin D. Roosevelt's "fireside chats" of the 1930s, in which he spoke of the middle class as the "backbone of Australia" but as nevertheless having been "taken for granted" by political parties and of being effectively powerless because of lack of wealth on the one hand, and lack of organisation on the other.[7][8]
Outlining his vision for a new political movement in 1944, Menzies said:
"...[W]hat we must look for, and it is a matter of desperate importance to our society, is a true revival of liberal thought which will work for social justice and security, for national power and national progress, and for the full development of the individual citizen, though not through the dull and deadening process of socialism.[9]
Menzies wanted the new party to be independent of interest groups like big business and so sought to organise a structure under which the Party would only receive money from individuals in small amounts, rather than from trade groups or associations.[3]
After only modest gains against Labor at the 1946 election, Menzies saw out another three years as opposition leader – opposing Labor's efforts to nationalise Australia's banks, criticising petrol rationing and speaking out against Communism in the early stages of the Cold War. Menzies characterised the incumbent Chifley government as "socialist". With Arthur Fadden of the Country Party as his deputy, Menzies led the Liberal-Country Party Coalition to victory at the 1949 election.[3] He was now to become the longest serving prime minister in Australian history.
Terms in office
Following victory in the
Menzies' 1949 Cabinet had the leader of the Country Party,
Economy and trade
After winning office in 1949, Menzies fulfilled his promises to end rationing of butter, tea and petrol and provide a 5 shilling endowment for first born children, as well as for others.[3]
Australia experienced a prolonged economic boom during the Menzies years. Menzies remained a staunch supporter of links to the
In the Menzies government, McEwen pursued what became known as "McEwenism" – a policy of high tariff protection for the manufacturing industry, so that industry would not challenge the continuing high tariffs on imported raw materials, which benefited farmers but pushed up industry's costs. This policy was a part (some argue the foundation) of what became known as the "Australian settlement" which promoted high wages, industrial development, government intervention in industry (Australian governments traditionally owned banks and insurance companies and the railways and through policies designed to assist particular industries) and decentralisation.[14][15]
In the early 1950s, external affairs minister Percy Spender helped to establish the Colombo Plan for providing economic aid to underdeveloped nations in Australia's region. Under the scheme, many future Asian leaders studied in Australia.[16]
In 1951, the top marginal tax rate for incomes above £10,000 what is equivalent to $425,000 today, was 75 per cent under Menzies. from 1955 until the mid-1980s the top marginal tax rate was 67 per cent.[17]
Other than blocking the nationalisation of the Banking system by the Labor Party, Menzies privatised the Commonwealth Oil Refinery. The wool industry remained a mainstay of the economy through the 1950s, indeed it was said that the Australian economy "rode on the sheep's back".[18] Nevertheless, important developments in further industries occurred, such as the construction of Australia's first commercial oil field at Moonie in Queensland in 1961.[19]
In 1960, the government split the
While for most Australians the Menzies era was an era of prosperity, the nation experienced high inflation during the early years of Menzies' rule. The Korean War increased demand for commodities. Wool in particular boomed, leading to a rise in growers' incomes, but also to inflation. The Arbitration Court helped stabilise wages from 1953. From 1959 to 1960 Australia experienced something of a boom, spurred by overseas speculators and high domestic spending – resulting in recession by 1961, following a "horror" mini-budget designed to slow the economy. Unemployment reaching 2.1% (at that time considered "high") and Menzies went on to win the 1961 election by just one seat. Following the election, Menzies and Treasurer Harold Holt introduced another mini-budget designed to spur growth and the economy was in recovery.[3]
Foreign affairs
The Menzies era saw immense regional changes, with post-war reconstruction and the withdrawal of European Powers and the British Empire from the Far East (including independence for India and Indonesia); the consolidation of Communist regimes in China, North Vietnam, North Korea and Communist insurgencies elsewhere.[19]
Cold War
Menzies was firmly anti-Communist. In 1950 his government committed troops to the
In 1951, during the early stages of the
Treaties and defence
Australia signed the official Peace Treaty with Japan in San Francisco in 1951, but by this point, the world had entered a new and tense period in international relations – the Cold War.[19] With the memory of Japanese expansionism fresh in the Australian experience, and with the commencement of the Cold War seeing the Soviet Union dominating Eastern Europe, the Chinese Communist Party winning the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and Communist North Korea invading South Korea in 1950, Australia sought security outside its traditional allegiance to Britain.[20]
In June 1950, Communist
Analysts voiced fear of the "domino theory", according to which South East Asia would fall to Communism state by state. In defence policy, Menzies moved Australia to a policy of "forward defence" and committed troops against Communists insurgencies in South East Asia – the Malayan Emergency, and Indonesia's policy of Confrontation and, near the end of Menzies' prime ministership, the early stages of the Vietnam War.[20]
In 1951, the first call ups were made under the National Service Act, which provided for compulsory military training of 18-year-old men, who were then to remain on the Army Reserve for five years. The Scheme trained 227,000 men between 1951 and 1960 (when it ended).[19] In 1952, a program of British nuclear weapons testing began in Australia. The program was based at Maralinga, South Australia from 1954 until 1963 (and was later the subject of a Royal Commission investigation). National Service was reintroduced in 1964, in the form of the National Service Lottery, under which Marbles of birth dates were drawn from a lottery barrel. The Scheme remained in place until 1972 and saw 63,000 men conscripted.[19]
The Menzies government entered the first formal military alliance outside of the British Commonwealth with the signing of the
In 1954, the Menzies government signed the South East Asia Collective Defence Treaty (
In 1959, Australia signed the
Suez Crisis
Robert Menzies' was despatched to Cairo by an 18 nation committee to act as chairman in negotiations with Egyptian President Nasser following his 1956 nationalisation of the Suez Canal during the Suez Crisis. Western powers had built the trade canal, but Egypt was now seeking to exclude them from a role in its ownership or management. Menzies felt that Nasser's actions threatened Australia's interests as a trading nation and an ally of Britain.[3][24]
Menzies' 7 September official communique to Nasser presented a case for compensation for the
Menzies hinted to Nasser that Britain and France might use force to resolve the crisis, but United States President Eisenhower openly opposed the use of force and Menzies left Egypt without success.[3] Menzies voiced support for the subsequent Anglo-French military operation in Egypt, which resulted in a humiliating withdrawal and the resignation of the British prime minister, Anthony Eden.
Commonwealth of Nations
The Menzies era saw the sun set on the British Empire and the expansion of the
The first tour by a reigning monarch saw her cover 10,000 miles by air and 2,000 miles by ground.[19] On a later Royal Tour in 1963, Menzies famously and effusively praised Queen Elizabeth by quoting an Elizabethan era poem: "I did but see her passing by and yet I love her till I die".[27]
As decolonisation proceeded around the British Empire, the Menzies government followed Britain's lead and imposed economic sanctions on Southern Rhodesia when the Ian Smith government had declared self-government to maintain white minority rule.[19]
Society and welfare
The Menzies government instigated a series of important reforms to immigration laws, which resulted in the erosion of the restrictions of the unofficial
Health
In 1953 the government introduced a number of reforms to the existing provision of health services. These reforms were the basis for the future expansion in the provision of public health and aged care services. The first major health reform was the creation of a voluntary, contributory national health scheme through the National Health Act 1953. This was followed by the Aged Persons Homes Act 1954, the Aged and Disabled Persons Care Act 1954 and the Home Nursing Subsidy Act 1956. National subsidies for residential aged care services commenced in 1963. In implementing these reforms the Menzies government promoted the role of private insurance funds and private health care providers (mainly charitable and religious based organisations), rather than adopting the model adopted in the United Kingdom with the introduction of the National Health Service in the 1940s.[28]
On 1 March 1960, with the National Health Act No. 72 1959, the Menzies government introduced the new Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme, which expanded the range of prescribed medicines subsidised by the government.[29][30]
Marriage and divorce
Through the Matrimonial Causes Act 1959, the Menzies government introduced a uniform divorce law across Australia and recognised "no-fault" divorce by allowing a specified period of separation as sufficient grounds for a divorce. It was eventually replaced by the Family Law Act 1975. In 1961, the Menzies government used the powers granted by section 51(xxi) of the constitution to pass the Marriage Act 1961, which gave the federal government exclusive jurisdiction over the formation of marriages. It remains in force although it has been amended on several occasions.[19]
Immigration
Beginning in 1949, Immigration Minister Harold Holt decided to allow 800 non-European war refugees to remain in Australia, and Japanese war brides to be admitted to Australia.[31] In 1950 External Affairs Minister Percy Spender instigated the Colombo Plan, under which students from Asian countries were admitted to study at Australian universities, then in 1957 non-Europeans with 15 years' residence in Australia were allowed to become citizens. In a watershed legal reform, a 1958 revision of the Migration Act introduced a simpler system for entry and abolished the "dictation test" which had permitted the exclusion of migrants on the basis of their ability to take down a dictation offered in any European language. Immigration Minister, Sir Alexander Downer, announced that 'distinguished and highly qualified Asians' might immigrate. Restrictions continued to be relaxed through the 1960s in the lead up to the Holt government's watershed Migration Act, 1966.[31]
This was despite in a discussion with radio 2UE's Stewart Lamb in 1955 he was a defender of the
(Menzies) "I don't want to see reproduced in Australia the kind of problem they have in South Africa or in America or increasingly in Great Britain. I think it's been a very good policy and it's been of great value to us and most of the criticism of it that I've ever heard doesn't come from these oriental countries it comes from wandering Australians.
(Lamb) "For these years of course in the past Sir Robert you have been described as a racist."
(Menzies) "Have I?"
(Lamb) "I have read this, yes."
(Menzies) "Well if I were not described as a racist I'd be the only public man who hasn't been."
Aboriginal affairs
Campaigns for Aboriginal rights gathered pace in Australia during the Menzies era. When Menzies assumed office, Aboriginal people were still excluded from voting in Federal elections in Queensland and West Australia. In 1949, Parliament legislated to ensure that all Aboriginal ex-servicemen should have the right to vote. In 1961 a Parliamentary Committee was established to investigate and report to the Parliament on Aboriginal voting rights and in 1962, Menzies' Commonwealth Electoral Act provided that all
Education, science and infrastructure
The Menzies government extended Federal involvement in education and developed the city of Canberra as the national capital. Menzies introduced the Commonwealth scholarship scheme in 1951, to cover fees and pay a generous means-tested allowance for bright students from lower socioeconomic groups.[16] In 1956, a committee headed by Sir Keith Murray was established to inquire into the financial plight of Australia's universities, and Menzies' pumped funds into the sector under conditions which preserved the autonomy of universities.[20]
In 1954, the government established Mawson Station in Antarctica as Australia's first permanent base on the continent and in 1957, Davis Station was constructed.[19]
In 1956, Television in Australia began broadcasting. In a significant step, Menzies opted for a hybrid system, licensing both commercial and public broadcasters.[35]
The Australian Atomic Energy Commission (now Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation) was set up under the Atomic Energy Act in 1953 and Lucas Heights Nuclear Reactor commenced operation in 1958.[19]
From 1960 the Government allowed the United States to establish satellite tracking stations in the A.C.T. – resulting in the construction of Orroral Creek, Honeysuckle Creek and Tidbinbilla.
In 1960, money was set aside for the construction of the long-delayed Lake Burley Griffin – the original centre-piece of the design for Canberra.[20]
In 1962, an interstate coaxial cable linking the Eastern seaboard cities was completed. International direct dial was achieved with the opening of the Commonwealth Pacific Cable in 1963, in a scheme designed to link the Commonwealth by phone.[19]
Menzies era
In his last address to the Liberal Party Federal Council in 1964, Menzies reflected on the "Liberal Creed" as follows:
As the etymology of our name 'Liberal' indicates, we have stood for freedom. We have realised that men and women are not just ciphers in a calculation, but are individual human beings whose individual welfare and development must be the main concern of government.... We have learned that the right answer is to set the individual free, to aim at equality of opportunity, to protect the individual against oppression, to create a society in which rights and duties are recognized and made effective."[36]
Though often characterised as a "conservative" period in Australian history, the Menzies era was a period of sustained economic boom with rapid technological advance and Australia experienced the beginnings of sweeping social change – with the arrivals of
Retirement of Menzies
Menzies was Knighted in 1963, and was honoured in 1965 by being appointed to succeed
See also
- History of Australia
- History of Australia since 1945
- Fourth Menzies Ministry
- Fifth Menzies Ministry
- Sixth Menzies Ministry
- Seventh Menzies Ministry
- Eighth Menzies Ministry
- Ninth Menzies Ministry
- Tenth Menzies Ministry
References
- ^ "Before office - Joseph Lyons (6 January 1932 – 7 April 1939) and Enid Lyons".
- ^ "In office - James Scullin (22 October 1929 – 6 January 1932) and Sarah Scullin".
- ^ a b c d e f g h Brian Carroll; From Barton to Fraser; Cassell Australia; 1978
- ^ "Formation of the Liberal Party of Australia". Party History. Liberal Party of Australia – Queensland Division. Archived from the original on 26 April 2007. Retrieved 11 April 2007.
- ^ a b Ian Hancock. "The Origins of the Modern Liberal Party". Harold White Fellowships. National Library of Australia. Retrieved 11 April 2007.
- ^ "Menzies, Sir Robert Gordon (Bob) (1894–1978)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University.
- ^ "Screen Australia Digital Learning - Menzies' Forgotten People Speech (2008)".
- ^ "The Forgotten People - Speech by Robert Menzies on 22 May, 1942. Liberals.Net: Liberal Party of Australia".
- ^ "Our History". 12 June 2013.
- ^ "Elections - Robert Menzies (26 April 1939 – 29 August 1941; 19 December 1949 – 26 January 1966) and Pattie Menzies".
- ^ "Fadden, Sir Arthur William (1894–1973)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University.
- ^ "Robert Menzies: During office". National Archives of Australia. Australia's Prime Ministers. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
- ^ "McEwen, Sir John (1900–1980)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University.
- ISBN 978-0-521-42629-9. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
- ^ McKenzie, Bridget (16 December 2020). "John McEwen's postwar success has lessons for us post-Covid". The Australian.
- ^ a b "The way we were: quiet, maybe, but certainly not dull". The Sydney Morning Herald. 26 April 2011.
- ^ Opinion piece in The Australian (Subscription)
- ^ "Screen Australia Digital Learning - Riding on the Sheep's Back (1994)".
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "Robert Menzies: Timeline". National Archives of Australia. Australia's Prime Ministers. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f Martin, A. W. (2000). "Sir Robert Gordon (Bob) Menzies". Australian Dictionary of Biography. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
This article was published in hardcopy in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 15, (Melbourne University Press), 2000
- ^ Uhlmann, Chris (30 April 2010). "Conviction? Clever Kevin is no Pig Iron Bob". ABC News.
- ^ "Korean War 1950–53". Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
- ^ aspx
- ^ a b R. G. Menzies; Speech is of Time; Cassell; London; 1958
- ^ Wishart, Alison (10 January 2018). "The 1954 Royal Tour of Queen Elizabeth II". State Library of NSW. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
- ^ Matthew, H.C.G (2011). "Macmillan, Maurice Harold (Harold)". The Robert Menzies Collection: A Living Library. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, edited by H.C.G. Matthew and Brian Harrison. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Online edition, edited by Lawrence Goldman, 2011. Accessed 2 October 2012.
- ^ "Robert Gordon Menzies and the Menzies Era (1949 to 1972)". Archived from the original on 8 April 2012. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
- ^ Hilless, Melissa; Healy, Judith (2001). Health Care Systems in Transition (PDF). European Observatory on Health Care Systems. pp. 14–15.
- ^ Biggs, Amanda (2002). "The Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme: an overview". Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
- ^ Harvey, Ken (2 November 2001). "The Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme". [Australian Review of Public Affairs. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
- ^ Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs. Archived from the originalon 1 September 2006. Retrieved 5 January 2010.
- ^ "What Menzies really thought of the Commonwealth". SBS News. 21 July 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
- ^ "Electoral Milestone: Timetable for Indigenous Australians". Australian Electoral Commission. Archived from the original on 6 January 2008.
- ^ "History of the Indigenous Vote". Australian Electoral Commission. August 2006. Archived from the original on 17 February 2011.
- ^ "Continuum".
- ^ "We believe: the Liberal party and the liberal cause". The Australian. 26 October 2009.
- ^ "About Robert Menzies". National Archives of Australia. Australia's Prime Ministers. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
- ^ "Harold Holt: elections". National Archives of Australia. Australia's Prime Ministers. Retrieved 20 February 2022.