Pantheon, Rome
Location | Regio IX Circus Flaminius |
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Coordinates | 41°53′55″N 12°28′36″E / 41.8986°N 12.4768°E |
Type | Roman temple |
History | |
Builder | Trajan, Hadrian |
Founded | 113–125 AD (current building) |
The Pantheon (
The building is round in plan, except for the portico with large granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment. A rectangular vestibule links the porch to the rotunda, which is under a coffered concrete dome, with a central opening (oculus) to the sky. Almost two thousand years after it was built, the Pantheon's dome is still the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome.[3] The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43 metres (142 ft).[4]
It is one of the best-preserved of all
The Pantheon's large circular domed cella, with a conventional temple portico front, was unique in Roman architecture. Nevertheless, it became a standard exemplar when classical styles were revived, and has been copied many times by later architects.[6]
Etymology
The name "Pantheon" is from the Ancient Greek "Pantheion" (Πάνθειον) meaning "of, relating to, or common to all the gods": (pan- / "παν-" meaning "all" + theion / "θεῖον"= meaning "of or sacred to a god").
Godfrey and Hemsoll point out that ancient authors never refer to Hadrian's Pantheon with the word aedes, as they do with other temples, and the Severan inscription carved on the architrave uses simply "Pantheum", not "Aedes Panthei" (temple of all the gods).[13] Livy wrote that it had been decreed that temple buildings (or perhaps temple cellae) should only be dedicated to single divinities, so that it would be clear who would be offended if, for example, the building was struck by lightning, and because it was only appropriate to offer sacrifice to a specific deity (27.25.7–10).[14] Godfrey and Hemsoll maintain that the word Pantheon "need not denote a particular group of gods, or, indeed, even all the gods, since it could well have had other meanings. ... Certainly the word pantheus or pantheos, could be applicable to individual deities. ... Bearing in mind also that the Greek word θεῖος (theios) need not mean 'of a god' but could mean 'superhuman', or even 'excellent'."[13]
Since the
History
Ancient
In the aftermath of the Battle of Actium (31 BC), Marcus Agrippa started an impressive building program. The Pantheon was a part of the complex created by him on his own property in the Campus Martius in 29–19 BC, which included three buildings aligned from south to north: the Baths of Agrippa, the Basilica of Neptune, and the Pantheon.[15] It seems likely that the Pantheon and the Basilica of Neptune were Agrippa's sacra privata, not aedes publicae (public temples).[16] The former would help explain how the building could have so easily lost its original name and purpose (Ziolkowski contends that it was originally the Temple of Mars in Campo)[17] in such a relatively short period of time.[18]
It had long been thought that the current building was built by Agrippa, with later alterations undertaken, and this was in part because of the Latin inscription on the front of the temple[19] which reads:
- M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIVM·FECIT
or in full, "M[arcus] Agrippa L[ucii] f[ilius] co[n]s[ul] tertium fecit," meaning "
The form of Agrippa's Pantheon is debated. As a result of excavations in the late 19th century, archaeologist Rodolfo Lanciani concluded that Agrippa's Pantheon was oriented so that it faced south, in contrast with the current layout that faces north, and that it had a shortened T-shaped plan with the entrance at the base of the "T". This description was widely accepted until the late 20th century. While more recent archaeological diggings have suggested that Agrippa's building might have had a circular form with a triangular porch, and it might have also faced north, much like the later rebuildings, Ziolkowski complains that their conclusions were based entirely on surmise; according to him, they did not find any new datable material, yet they attributed everything they found to the Agrippan phase, failing to account for the fact that Domitian, known for his enthusiasm for building and known to have restored the Pantheon after 80 AD, might well have been responsible for everything they found. Ziolkowski argues that Lanciani's initial assessment is still supported by all of the finds to date, including theirs; he expresses scepticism because the building they describe, "a single building composed of a huge pronaos and a circular cella of the same diameter, linked by a relatively narrow and very short passage (much thinner than the current intermediate block), has no known parallels in classical architecture and would go against everything we know of Roman design principles in general and of Augustan architecture in particular."[22]
The only passages referring to the decoration of the Agrippan Pantheon written by an eyewitness are in Pliny the Elder's Natural History. From him we know that "the capitals, too, of the pillars, which were placed by M. Agrippa in the Pantheon, are made of Syracusan bronze",[23] that "the Pantheon of Agrippa has been decorated by Diogenes of Athens, and the Caryatides, by him, which form the columns of that temple, are looked upon as masterpieces of excellence: the same, too, with the statues that are placed upon the roof,"[24] and that one of Cleopatra's pearls was cut in half so that each half "might serve as pendants for the ears of Venus, in the Pantheon at Rome".[25]
The Augustan Pantheon was destroyed along with other buildings in a fire in 80 AD. Domitian rebuilt the Pantheon, which was burnt again in 110 AD.[26]
The degree to which the decorative scheme should be credited to Hadrian's architects is uncertain. Finished by Hadrian but not claimed as one of his works, it used the text of the original inscription on the new façade (a common practice in Hadrian's rebuilding projects all over Rome; the only building on which Hadrian put his own name was the Temple to the Deified Trajan).[27] How the building was actually used is not known. The Historia Augusta says that Hadrian dedicated the Pantheon (among other buildings) in the name of the original builder (Hadr. 19.10), but the current inscription could not be a copy of the original; it provides no information as to who Agrippa's foundation was dedicated to, and, in Ziolkowski's opinion, it was highly unlikely that in 25 BC Agrippa would have presented himself as "consul tertium." On coins, the same words, "M. Agrippa L.f cos. tertium", were the ones used to refer to him after his death; consul tertium serving as "a sort of posthumous cognomen ex virtute, a remembrance of the fact that, of all the men of his generation apart from Augustus himself, he was the only one to hold the consulship thrice."[28] Whatever the cause of the alteration of the inscription might have been, the new inscription reflects the fact that there was a change in the building's purpose.[29]
Cassius Dio, a Graeco-Roman senator, consul and author of a comprehensive History of Rome, writing approximately 75 years after the Pantheon's reconstruction, mistakenly attributed the domed building to Agrippa rather than Hadrian. Dio appears to be the only near-contemporaneous writer to mention the Pantheon. Even by 200, there was uncertainty about the origin of the building and its purpose:
Agrippa finished the construction of the building called the Pantheon. It has this name, perhaps because it received among the images which decorated it the statues of many gods, including Mars and Venus; but my own opinion of the name is that, because of its vaulted roof, it resembles the heavens.
— Cassius Dio History of Rome 53.27.2
In 202, the building was repaired by the joint emperors Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla (fully Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), for which there is another, smaller inscription on the architrave of the façade, under the aforementioned larger text.[30][31] This now-barely legible inscription reads:
- IMP · CAES · L · SEPTIMIVS · SEVERVS · PIVS · PERTINAX · ARABICVS · ADIABENICVS · PARTHICVS · MAXIMVS · PONTIF · MAX · TRIB · POTEST · X · IMP · XI · COS · III · P · P · PROCOS ET
- IMP · CAES · M · AVRELIVS · ANTONINVS · PIVS · FELIX · AVG · TRIB · POTEST · V · COS · PROCOS · PANTHEVM · VETVSTATE · CORRVPTVM · CVM · OMNI · CVLTV · RESTITVERVNT
In English, this means:
- Emp[eror] Caes[ar] Pontif[ex] Max[imus], 10 times tribune, 11 times proclaimed emperor, three times consul, P[ater] P[atriae], proconsul, and
- Emp[eror] Caes[ar] M[arcus] Aurelius Antoninus Pius Felix Aug[ustus], five times tribune, consul, proconsul, have carefully restored the Pantheon ruined by age.[32]
Medieval
In 609, the Byzantine emperor Phocas gave the building to Pope Boniface IV, who converted it into a Christian church and consecrated it to St. Mary and the Martyrs on 13 May 609: "Another Pope, Boniface, asked the same [Emperor Phocas, in Constantinople] to order that in the old temple called the Pantheon, after the pagan filth was removed, a church should be made, to the holy virgin Mary and all the martyrs, so that the commemoration of the saints would take place henceforth where not gods but demons were formerly worshipped."[33] Twenty-eight cartloads of holy relics of martyrs were said to have been removed from the catacombs and placed in a porphyry basin beneath the high altar.[34] On its consecration, Boniface placed an icon of the Mother of God as 'Panagia Hodegetria' (All Holy Directress) within the new sanctuary.[35]
The building's consecration as a church saved it from the abandonment, destruction, and the worst of the spoliation that befell the majority of ancient Rome's buildings during the early medieval period. However, Paul the Deacon records the spoliation of the building by the Emperor Constans II, who visited Rome in July 663:
Remaining at Rome twelve days he pulled down everything that in ancient times had been made of metal for the ornament of the city, to such an extent that he even stripped off the roof of the church [of the blessed Mary], which at one time was called the Pantheon, and had been founded in honour of all the gods and was now by the consent of the former rulers the place of all the martyrs; and he took away from there the bronze tiles and sent them with all the other ornaments to Constantinople.
Much fine external marble has been removed over the centuries – for example, capitals from some of the pilasters are in the British Museum.[36] Two columns were swallowed up in the medieval buildings that abutted the Pantheon on the east and were lost. In the early 17th century, Urban VIII Barberini tore away the bronze ceiling of the portico, and replaced the medieval campanile with the famous twin towers (often wrongly attributed to Bernini[37]) called "the ass's ears",[38] which were not removed until the late 19th century.[39] The only other loss has been the external sculptures, which adorned the pediment above Agrippa's inscription. The marble interior has largely survived, although with extensive restoration.
Renaissance
Since the Renaissance the Pantheon has been the site of several important burials. Among those buried there are the painters Raphael and Annibale Carracci, the composer Arcangelo Corelli, and the architect Baldassare Peruzzi. In the 15th century, the Pantheon was adorned with paintings: the best-known is the Annunciation by Melozzo da Forlì. Filippo Brunelleschi, among other architects, looked to the Pantheon as inspiration for their works.
In 1747, the broad frieze below the dome with its false windows was "restored," but bore little resemblance to the original. In the early decades of the 20th century, a piece of the original, as far as could be reconstructed from Renaissance drawings and paintings, was recreated in one of the panels.
Modern
Two kings of Italy are buried in the Pantheon:
The Pantheon is in use as a Catholic church, and as such, visitors are asked to keep an appropriate level of deference.
Structure
Portico
The building was originally approached by a flight of steps. Later construction raised the level of the ground leading to the portico, eliminating these steps.[5]
The pediment was decorated with relief sculpture, probably of gilded bronze. Holes marking the location of clamps that held the sculpture suggest that its design was likely an eagle within a wreath; ribbons extended from the wreath into the corners of the pediment.[43]
On the intermediate block between the portico and the rotunda, the remains of a second pediment suggests that the existing portico is much shorter than originally intended. A portico aligned with the second pediment would fit columns with shafts 50 Roman feet (14.8 metres) tall and capitals 10 Roman feet tall (3 metres), whereas the existing portico has shafts 40 Roman feet (11.9 metres) tall and capitals eight Roman feet (2.4 metres) tall.[44][45]
Mark Wilson Jones has attempted to explain the design adjustments by suggesting that, once the higher pediment had been constructed, the required 50-foot columns failed to arrive (possibly as a result of logistical difficulties).[44] The builders then had to make some awkward adjustments to fit the shorter columns and pediments. Rabun Taylor has noted that, even if the taller columns were delivered, basic construction constraints may have prevented their use.[45] Assuming that each column would first be laid on the floor next to its pediment before being pivoted upright (using something like an A-frame), there would be a space requirement of a column-length on one side of the pediment, and at least a column-length on the opposite side for the pivoting equipment and ropes. With 50-foot columns, "there was no way to sequence the erection of [the columns] without creating a hopeless snarl. The shafts were simply too long to be positioned on the floor in a workable configuration, regardless of sequence."[45] Specifically, the innermost row of columns would be blocked by the main body of the temple, and in the later stages of construction some already-erected columns would inevitably obstruct the erection of further columns.
It has also been argued that the scale of the portico was related to the urban design of the space in front of the temple.[46]
The grey
In the walls at the back of the Pantheon's portico are two huge niches, perhaps intended for statues of
The large bronze doors to the cella, measuring 4.45 metres (14.6 ft) wide by 7.53 metres (24.7 ft) high, are the oldest in Rome.[50] These were thought to be a 15th-century replacement for the original, mainly because they were deemed by contemporary architects to be too small for the door frames.[51] Later analysis of the fusion technique confirmed that these are the original Roman doors,[50] a rare example of Roman monumental bronze surviving, despite cleaning and the application of Christian motifs over the centuries.
Rotunda
The 4,535-tonne (4,463-long-ton; 4,999-short-ton) weight of the Roman concrete dome is concentrated on a ring of voussoirs 9.1 metres (30 ft) in diameter that form the oculus, while the downward thrust of the dome is carried by eight barrel vaults in the 6.4-metre-thick (21 ft) drum wall into eight piers. The thickness of the dome varies from 6.4 metres (21 ft) at the base of the dome to 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) around the oculus.[52] The materials used in the concrete of the dome also vary. At its thickest point, the aggregate is travertine, then terracotta tiles, then at the very top, tufa and pumice, both porous light stones. At the very top, where the dome would be at its weakest and vulnerable to collapse, the oculus lightens the load.[53]
No tensile test results are available on the concrete used in the Pantheon; however, Cowan discussed tests on ancient concrete from Roman ruins in Libya, which gave a compressive strength of 20 MPa (2,900 psi). An empirical relationship gives a tensile strength of 1.47 MPa (213 psi) for this specimen.[52] Finite element analysis of the structure by Mark and Hutchison[54] found a maximum tensile stress of only 0.128 MPa (18.5 psi) at the point where the dome joins the raised outer wall.[3]
The stresses in the dome were found to be substantially reduced by the use of successively less dense aggregate stones, such as small pots or pieces of pumice, in higher layers of the dome. Mark and Hutchison estimated that, if normal weight concrete had been used throughout, the stresses in the arch would have been some 80% greater. Hidden chambers engineered within the rotunda form a sophisticated structural system.[55] This reduced the weight of the roof, as did the oculus eliminating the apex.[56]
The top of the rotunda wall features a series of brick
The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft), so the whole interior would fit exactly within a cube (or, a 43.3-m sphere could fit within the interior).
Though often drawn as a free-standing building, there was a building at its rear which abutted it. While this building helped buttress the rotunda, there was no interior passage from one to the other.[61]
Interior
External videos | |
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The Pantheon, Rome, (8:31) Smarthistory |
Upon entry, visitors are greeted by an enormous rounded room covered by the dome. The oculus at the top of the dome was never covered, allowing rainfall through the ceiling and onto the floor. Because of this, the interior floor is equipped with drains and has been built with an incline of about 30 centimetres (12 in) to promote water runoff.[62][63]
The interior of the dome was possibly intended to symbolize the arched vault of the heavens.[57] The oculus at the dome's apex and the entry door are the only natural sources of light in the interior. Throughout the day, light from the oculus moves around this space in a reverse sundial effect: marking time with light rather than shadow.[64] The oculus also offers cooling and ventilation; during storms, a drainage system below the floor handles rain falling through the oculus.
The dome features sunken panels (coffers), in five rings of 28. This evenly spaced layout was difficult to achieve and, it is presumed, had symbolic meaning, either numerical, geometric, or lunar.[65][66] In antiquity, the coffers may have contained bronze rosettes symbolising the starry firmament.[67]
Circles and squares form the unifying theme of the interior design. The checkerboard floor pattern contrasts with the concentric circles of square coffers in the dome. Each zone of the interior, from floor to ceiling, is subdivided according to a different scheme. As a result, the interior decorative zones do not line up. The overall effect is immediate viewer orientation according to the major axis of the building, even though the cylindrical space topped by a hemispherical dome is inherently ambiguous. This discordance has not always been appreciated, and the attic level was redone according to Neoclassical taste in the 18th century.[68]
Catholic additions
Church of St. Mary of the Martyrs | |
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Chiesa Santa Maria dei Martiri Sancta Maria ad Martyres | |
Roman | |
Completed | 126 |
Specifications | |
Direction of façade | North |
Length | 84 metres (276 ft) |
Width | 58 metres (190 ft) |
Height (max) | 58 metres (190 ft) |
Website | |
Official website |
The present high altars and the apses were commissioned by Pope Clement XI (1700–1721) and designed by Alessandro Specchi. Enshrined on the apse above the high altar is a 7th-century Byzantine icon of the Virgin and Child, given by Phocas to Pope Boniface IV on the occasion of the dedication of the Pantheon for Christian worship on 13 May 609. The choir was added in 1840, and was designed by Luigi Poletti.
The first niche to the right of the entrance holds a
The second niche has a 15th-century fresco of the Tuscan school, depicting the Coronation of the Virgin. In the second chapel is the tomb of
Manfredo Manfredi won the competition, and started work in 1885. The tomb consists of a large bronze plaque surmounted by a Roman eagle and the arms of the house of Savoy. The golden lamp above the tomb burns in honor of Victor Emmanuel III, who died in exile in 1947.
The third niche has a sculpture by
On the first niche to the left of the entrance is an Assumption (1638) by
The first members were, among others,
To the sides are paintings (1661) by Francesco Cozza, one of the Virtuosi: Adoration of the Shepherds on left side and Adoration of the Magi on right. The stucco relief on the left, Dream of St Joseph, is by Paolo Benaglia, and the one on the right, Rest during the flight from Egypt, is by Carlo Monaldi. On the vault are several 17th-century canvases, from left to right: Cumean Sibyl by Ludovico Gimignani; Moses by Francesco Rosa; Eternal Father by Giovanni Peruzzini; David by Luigi Garzi; and Eritrean Sibyl by Giovanni Andrea Carlone.
The second niche has a statue of St Agnes, by Vincenzo Felici. The bust on the left is a portrait of
The third niche holds the mortal remains – his Ossa et cineres, "Bones and ashes", as the inscription on the sarcophagus says – of the great artist Raphael. His fiancée, Maria Bibbiena is buried to the right of his sarcophagus; she died before they could marry. The sarcophagus was given by Pope Gregory XVI, and its inscription reads ILLE HIC EST RAPHAEL TIMUIT QUO SOSPITE VINCI / RERUM MAGNA PARENS ET MORIENTE MORI, meaning "Here lies Raphael, by whom the great mother of all things (Nature) feared to be overcome while he was living, and while he was dying, herself to die". The epigraph was written by Pietro Bembo.
The present arrangement is from 1811, designed by Antonio Muñoz. The bust of Raphael (1833) is by Giuseppe Fabris. The two plaques commemorate Maria Bibbiena and Annibale Carracci. Behind the tomb is the statue known as the Madonna del Sasso (Madonna of the Rock) so named because she rests one foot on a boulder. It was commissioned by Raphael and made by Lorenzetto in 1524.
In the Chapel of the Crucifixion, the Roman brick wall is visible in the niches. The wooden crucifix on the altar is from the 15th century. On the left wall is a Descent of the Holy Ghost (1790) by Pietro Labruzi. On the right side is the low relief Cardinal Consalvi presents to Pope Pius VII the five provinces restored to the Holy See (1824) made by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. The bust is a portrait of Cardinal Agostino Rivarola. The final niche on this side has a statue of St. Evasius (Sant'Evasio) (1727) by Francesco Moderati.[69]
Gallery
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Pantheon during a cloudy day
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The dome photographed with a fisheye lens in 2016
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Pantheon 2013
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Tomb of KingVictor Emmanuel II, "Father of the Country"
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The icon of the Madonna which was given by Phocas to Pope Boniface IV
Cardinal deaconry
On 23 July 1725, the Pantheon was established as
Influence
Among the most notable versions are the church of
The portico-and-dome form of the Pantheon can be detected in many buildings of the 19th and 20th centuries; numerous government and public buildings,
See also
- Romanian Athenaeum
- Panthéon, Paris
- Pantheon, Moscow (never built)
- Manchester Central Library
- Volkshalle higher (never built)
- The Rotunda (University of Virginia), United States
- Auditorium of Southeast University, Southeast University, China
General:
- List of Roman domes
- History of Roman and Byzantine domes
- List of largest domes
- List of tourist attractions in Rome
Notes
- ^ Although the spelling Pantheon is standard in English, only Pantheum is found in classical Latin; see, for example, Pliny, Natural History 36.38: "Agrippas Pantheum decoravit Diogenes Atheniensis". See also Oxford Latin Dictionary, s.v. "Pantheum"; Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. "Pantheon": "post-classical Latin pantheon a temple consecrated to all the gods (6th cent.; compare classical Latin pantheum)".
Footnotes
- ^ a b "Pantheon". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. December 2008.
- ^ MacDonald 1976, pp. 12–13
- ^ a b Moore, David (1999). "The Pantheon". romanconcrete.com. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
- ^ Rasch 1985, p. 119
- ^ a b MacDonald 1976, p. 18
- ^ Summerson (1980), 38–39, 38 quoted
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary
- ^ Ziegler, Konrat (1949). "Pantheion". Pauly's Real-Encyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft: neue Bearbeitung. Vol. XVIII. Stuttgart. pp. 697–747.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ISBN 978-0754608080.
- S2CID 191523665.
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman Histories 53.27, referenced in MacDonald 1976, p. 76
- S2CID 191523665.
- ^ a b Godfrey, Paul; Hemsoll, David (1986). "The Pantheon: Temple or Rotunda?". In Martin Henig; Anthony King (eds.). Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire (Monograph No 8 ed.). Oxford University Committee for Archaeology. p. 199.
- ^ Godfrey, Paul; Hemsoll, David (1986). "The Pantheon: Temple or Rotunda?". In Martin Henig; Anthony King (eds.). Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire (Monograph No 8 ed.). Oxford University Committee for Archaeology. p. 198.
- ^ Dio, Cassius. "Roman History". p. 53.23.3.
- ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (1999). Lexicon topographicum urbis Romae 4. Rome: Quasar. pp. 55–56.
- S2CID 191523665.
- S2CID 191523665.
- ^ Thomas 1997, p. 165
- ^ "Pantheon". Romereborn.virginia.edu. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
- ^ Hetland, Lise (9–12 November 2006). Graßhoff, G; Heinzelmann, M; Wäfler, M (eds.). "Zur Datierung des Pantheon". The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions to the Conference. Bern.
- ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (9–12 November 2006). Graßhoff, G; Heinzelmann, M; Wäfler, M (eds.). "What did Agrippa's Pantheon Look like? New Answers to an Old Question". The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions to the Conference. Bern: 31–34.
- ^ Pliny, The Elder. "The Natural History". p. 34.7.
- ^ Pliny, The Elder. "The Natural History". p. 36.4.
- ^ Pliny, The Elder. "The Natural History". p. 9.58.
- ^ Kleiner 2007, p. 182
- ^ Ramage & Ramage 2009, p. 236
- ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (9–12 November 2006). Graßhoff, G; Heinzelmann, M; Wäfler, M (eds.). "What did Agrippa's Pantheon Look like? New Answers to an Old Question". The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions to the Conference. Bern: 39.
- ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (2007). Leone; Palombi; Walker (eds.). Res Bene Gestae: Ricerche di storia urbana su Roma antica in onore di Eva Margreta Steinby. Rome: Quasar.
- ^ Luigi Piale; Mariano Vasi (1851). New Guide of Rome and the Environs According to Vasi and Nibby: Containing a Description of the Monuments, Galleries, Churches [etc.] Carefully Revised and Enlarged, with an Account of the Latest Antiquarian Researches. L. Piale. p. 272.
- ^ Giuseppe Melchiorri (1834). Paolo Badalì (ed.). "Nuova guida metodica di Roma e suoi contorni – Parte Terza ("New Methodic Guide to Rome and Its Suburbs – Third Part")". Archivio viaggiatori italiani a roma e nel lazio – Istituto Nazionale Di Studi Romani (in Italian). Tuscia University. Archived from the original on 4 May 2012. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
- ^ Emmanuel Rodocanachi (1920). Les monuments antiques de Rome encore existants: les ponts, les murs, les voies, les aqueducs, les enceintes de Rome, les palais, les temples, les arcs (in French). Libr. Hachette. p. 192.
- ^ John the Deacon, Monumenta Germaniae Historia (1848) 7.8.20, quoted in MacDonald 1976, p. 139
- ^ Popes Boniface III–VII (archived copy) oce.catholic.com, accessed 11 April 2021
- ^ Andrew J. Ekonomou. Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes. Lexington books, Toronto, 2007
- ^ "British Museum Highlights". Archived from the original on 27 October 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-226-53851-8. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
- ISBN 978-0822503767. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
bernini pantheon towers.
- ^ Marder 1991, p. 275
- ^ "Another view of the interior by Panini (1735), Liechtenstein Museum, Vienna". Archived from the original on 28 September 2011.
- ^ "Pantheon, The ruins and excavations of ancient Rome". Rodolpho Lanciani. Archived from the original on 1 July 2007.
- Senate of Italy. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
- ^ MacDonald 1976, pp. 63, 141–142; Claridge 1998, p. 203
- ^ a b Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Exterior, pp. 199–206
- ^ ISBN 0521803349.
- ISBN 978-0300028195.
- ^ Parker, Freda. "The Pantheon – Rome – 126 AD". Monolithic. Archived from the original on 26 May 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2009.
- ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Exterior, pp. 206–212
- ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Exterior, pp. 206–207
- ^ a b Cinti et al. 2007, p. 29
- ^ Claridge 1998, p. 204
- ^ a b Cowan 1977, p. 56
- ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, p. 187, Principles of Roman Architecture
- ^ Mark & Hutchinson 1986
- ^ MacDonald 1976, p. 33 "There are openings in it [the rotunda] here and there, at various levels, that give on to some of the many different chambers that honeycomb the rotunda structure, a honeycombing that is an integral part of a sophisticated engineering solution..."
- ^ Moore, David (February 1993). "The Riddle of Ancient Roman Concrete". S Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Colorado Region. www.romanconcrete.com. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
- ^ a b Roth 1992, p. 30
- ^ Claridge 1998, pp. 204–205
- ^ Lancaster 2005, pp. 44–46
- ^ Ottoni, Federica; Blasi, Carlo (4 March 2015). "Hooping as an Ancient Remedy for Conservation of Large Masonry Domes". International Journal of Architectural Heritage.
- ^ MacDonald 1976, p. 34, Wilson-Jones 2003, p. 191
- ^ "Roman Pantheon". www.rome.info. Retrieved 7 November 2018.
- ^ "Pantheon". history.com. Retrieved 7 November 2018.
- ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Interior, pp. 182–184
- ^ Lancaster 2005, p. 46
- ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Interior, pp. 182–183.
- ISBN 0155037692.
- ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Interior, pp. 184–197
- ^ a b Marder 1980, p. 35
- ^ MacDonald 1976, pp. 94–132
- ^ King 2000
- ^ a b Summerson (1980), 38–39
- ISBN 978-9993291329.
- National Biography of Finland. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
- ^ Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. Oxford University Press. 1998. p. 468.
- ISBN 978-0674010192.
References
- Cinti, Siro; De Martino, Federico; Carandini, Andrea; De Carolis, Marco; Belardi, Giovanni (2007). Pantheon. Storia e Futuro / History and Future (in Italian). Rome, Italy: Gangemi Editore. ISBN 978-8849213010.
- Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome. Oxford Archaeological Guides. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192880039.
- Cowan, Henry (1977). The Master Builders: : A History of Structural and Environmental Design From Ancient Egypt to the Nineteenth Century. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471027405.
- Favro, Diane (2005). "Making Rome a World City". The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus. Cambridge University Press. pp. 234–263. ISBN 978-0521003933.
- Hetland, L. M. (2007). "Dating the Pantheon". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 20 (1): 95–112. S2CID 162028301.
- King, Ross (2000). Brunelleschi's Dome. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN 0701169036.
- Kleiner, Fred S. (2007). A History of Roman Art. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 978-0534638467.
- Lancaster, Lynne C. (2005). Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome: Innovations in Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521842026.
- ISBN 978-9024714582.
- MacDonald, William L. (1976). The Pantheon: Design, Meaning, and Progeny. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674010191.
- Marder, Tod A. (1980). "Specchi's High Altar for the Pantheon and the Statues by Cametti and Moderati". JSTOR 879867.
- Marder, Tod A. (1991). "Alexander VII, Bernini, and the Urban Setting of the Pantheon in the Seventeenth Century". The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 50 (3). Society of Architectural Historians: 273–292. JSTOR 990615.
- Mark, R.; Hutchinson, P. (1986). "On the structure of the Pantheon". Art Bulletin. 68 (1). College Art Association: 24–34. JSTOR 3050861.
- Ramage, Nancy H.; Ramage, Andrew (2009). Roman art : Romulus to Constantine (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0136000976.
- Rasch, Jürgen (1985). "Die Kuppel in der römischen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruktion, Architectura". Architectura. 15: 117–139.
- Roth, Leland M. (1992). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History, And Meaning. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 0064384934.
- Stamper, John W. (2005). The Architecture Of Roman Temples: The Republic To The Middle Empire. The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052181068X.
- ISBN 0500201773
- Thomas, Edmund (1997). "The Architectural History of the Pantheon from Agrippa to Septimius Severus via Hadrian". Hephaistos. 15: 163–186.
- Wilson-Jones, Mark (2003). Principles of Roman Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300102024.
External links
- Official webpage from Vicariate of Rome website (archived 16 September 2015)
- "Beggar's Rome" - A self-directed virtual tour of St. Maria ad Martyres (Pantheon) and other Roman churches
- Pantheon Live Webcam, Live streaming Video of the Pantheon
- Pantheon Rome, Virtual Panorama and photo gallery
- Pantheon, article in Platner's Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome
- Pantheon Rome vs Pantheon Paris. Archived 24 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
- Tomás García Salgado, "The geometry of the Pantheon's vault"
- Pantheon at Great Buildings/Architecture Week website (archived 15 March 2008)
- Art & History Pantheon. Archived 2010-11-24 at the Wayback Machine.
- Summer solstice at the Pantheon (archived 15 July 2011)
- Pantheon at Structurae
- Video Introduction to the Pantheon
- Panoramic Virtual Tour inside the Pantheon Archived 11 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- High-resolution 360° Panoramas and Images of Pantheon | Art Atlas Archived 1 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- audio guide Pantheon Rome
- Lucentini, M. (2012). The Rome Guide: Step by Step through History's Greatest City. Interlink. ISBN 978-1623710088.
- Pantheon, Rome travel guide from Wikivoyage
- Media related to Pantheon at Wikimedia Commons
Preceded by Lupercal |
Landmarks of Rome Pantheon |
Succeeded by Porta Maggiore Basilica |