Siege of Tauromenium (394 BC)
Siege of Tauromenium | |
---|---|
Part of The Tauromenium | |
Result | Tauromenian victory |
The siege of Tauromenium was laid down by
Background
Carthage had intervened in favor of
Himilco first stormed Motya, where the mostly Sicel garrison under Biton was easily overcome,
Strategic considerations
Himilco chose not to set up base at Messana, he probably was not confident about holding the city this far away from Carthage.[6] Furthermore, majority of the Greeks of Messana were holed up in the hill fortresses nearby, and reducing them required time, which in turn would enable Dionysius to strengthen himself for the coming battle. The ultimate Carthaginian goal was the defeat of Syracuse, Messana was just a sideshow. Bringing reinforcements from Carthage would be time consuming as Carthage had no standing army and would need time to raise fresh mercenaries, while dividing the field army to Guard Messana would decrease his striking power against Dionysius. Himilco on the other hand could not entirely ignore the hostile Greek fortresses in his rear, as they might cause problems once he left the site. His solution was simple and ingenious at the same time, something that is termed indirect approach.[7]
The solution
Himilco chose to plant a city at Mt. Taurus, where some Sicels had already settled,[8] and populated it with allied Sicels and fortified the place, and in doing so killed several birds with a single stone. The city was near enough to block any Greek movements from Messana but was far enough away to fall victim to a surprise attack, and it could serve as a future base of operations. Furthermore, all the Sicels hated Dionysius[9] and except those from Assorus, they now abandoned the Greeks and either joined Himilco or went to their respective homes, decreasing the strength of Dionysius without Carthaginians striking a single blow.
Epaminondas of Thebes in 370 BC used the same strategy when he rebuilt Messene and founded Megalopolis in Spartan territory after failing to take Sparta by force, and decreased their territory and manpower successfully.[7]
Sicels and Greeks: mixed relations
Before Himilco built Tauronemium, Dionysius had permitted the Sicels to settle at Naxos, a nearby Greek city Dionysius had sacked and depopulated, an act that apparently did not impress the Sicels, and they chose to join Himilco at the first opportunity. Their past history with the Greeks may have been a reason.
Naxos was the first Greek colony in Sicily, settled in 734 BC on Sicel land. From that date Sicels had been the victims of Greek aggression. Leontini was the next colony, settled by Naxos, where the Greeks promised to live in peace with the Sicels. The Greeks at Leontini got colonists from Megara (who later founded Megara Hyblea) to drive the Sicels out of that city.
Sicily during 396–394 BC
The Carthaginians moved south towards Catana after the Sicels were secure at Tauromenium.[16] Dionysius moved his forces to Catana also but, due to the rash tactics of his brother Leptines, the Greek fleet was heavily defeated at the naval battle of Catana.[17] The Sicilian Greek cities which had become tributary to Carthage after 405 BC had all revolted in 398 BC, and along with the Sicels and the Sikans had joined Dionysius in his attack against Motya. After the defeat at Catana the Sicilian Greek soldiers returned to their respective homes when Dionysius decided to withstand a siege in Syracuse against their wishes. The Sicels had also turned against Dionysius after the establishment of Tauromenium and had sent soldiers to help Himilco during the siege of Syracuse in 397 BC.
Himilco besieged Syracuse itself in the autumn of 397 BC. After the Carthaginian forces were devastated by a plague, Dionysius managed to decimate the Punic fleet and shut up the army survivors in their camp in the summer of 396 BC. Himilco, after bribing Dionysius, fled to Africa with Carthaginian citizens, while Dionysius enslaved the abandoned Carthaginian soldiers.
Carthage: plagued by problems
The return of Himilco after abandoning his troops at the mercy of Dionysius did not sit well with the Carthaginian citizens or their African subjects. Himilco publicly took full responsibility for the debacle, dressed in rags visited all the temples of the city pleading for deliverance and finally committed suicide.[17] The divine was not mollified as a plague swept through Africa weakening Carthage further, and to top things off, the Libyans, angered by the desertion of their kinsmen in Sicily, gathered an army numbering 70,000 men and besieged Carthage itself.
Mago, the victor of Catana, (and possibly a member of the
Mago in Sicily
After securing the safety of Carthage, Mago moved to Sicily, where the Punic city of
Instead of trying to recover the lost Punic conquests through force, Mago adopted a policy of cooperation and friendship, giving aid to Greeks, Sikans, Sicels, Elymians and Punics regardless of their prior standing with Carthage.
The Carthaginians allowed Greeks from Naxos, Catana and Leontini, made refugees by Dionysius, along with Sicels and Sikans to settle in Punic territory, while alliances were made with Sicel tribes being threatened by Dionysius.[21] The Greeks cities, free of Carthaginian over lordship since 398 BC, now moved from a pro Syracuse position to a neutral one, either feeling threatened by Dionysius or because of the activities of Mago.[22]
Syracuse: Dionysius secures position
Dionysius did not immediately attack Punic Sicily after lifting the siege of Syracuse in 396 BC, although no formal treaty had been made ending the war with Carthage. The war had been costly and he may have been short of money, he also had to deal with a revolt of his mercenaries, and furthermore, he feared a fight to the finish with Carthage as it might end up finishing him.
Campaigns of Dionysius
The city of
Securing the north
Dionysius chose not to attack Carthaginians in western Sicily while the threat of Rhegion forcing a two front war on him existed, instead he rebuilt and repopulated Messana with 1,000 colonists from
Prelude to Tauromeniun
Dionysius attacked the Sicels and took Smeneous (exact location unknown) and Morgantina, around which the Punic city Solus and Sicel city Cephaleodium were betrayed to him, and the Sicel town Enna was sacked with the booty used to fatten his coffers.[29] Syracusan territory by now had expanded to border Agyrium. Agyris, tyrant of Agyrium was a ruthless man, having become rich after killing the leading citizens of Agyrium, commanded 20,000 citizens and many fortresses and was second only to Dionysius in Sicily.[33] Furthermore, Agyris had aided the Campanian mercenaries sent by Carthage to rescue Dionysius in 403 BC (when the Greek rebels had him besieged in Syracuse and he was close to capitulating),[34] so Dionysius had a personal debt to consider.
Sicel allies of Syracuse
Dionysius chose not to provoke Agyris or Damon, ruler of Centuripae but made alliances with the Sicel cities of Agyrium, Centuripae, Herbita, Assorus (this city had stayed loyal to Syracuse after other Sicels had deserted to Himilco when Tauromenium was founded in 397 BC)[35] and Herbessus,[29] creating a buffer zone for Syracuse in central Sicily. Thus having created a buffer in Central Sicily, Dionysius resolved to deal with Rhegion. Tauromenium was sitting between the territory controlled by Syracuse and could hinder Syracusan army/fleet movements, so Dionysius chose to attack the enemy nearest to Syracuse first in the winter of 394 BC.[31]
Opposing forces
Dionysius had mustered an army of 40,000 foot and 3,000 horsemen,[36] from both citizens and mercenaries (at least 10,000, if not more)[37] for attacking Motya in 398 BC, perhaps along with 40,000 Greek, Sicel and Sikan volunteers.[38] At Catana in 397 BC Dionysius commanded 30,000 foot and 3,000 horse, perhaps he was short of cash to hire mercenaries and part of his forces were manning Syracuse. The exact size of the Greeks army in 394 BC is not known, nor is the role played by the Greek fleet.
Greek forces
The mainstay of the Greek army was the
Sicel warriors
The number of Sicels soldiers present at Tauromenium is not known. Large Sicilian cities like Syracuse and Akragas could field up to 10,000–20,000 citizens,[42] while smaller ones like Himera and Messana between 3,000[43]–6,000[44] soldiers. Tauromenium probably could field a similar numbers like Messana.
The Sicels may have come from Italy
Sicels may have favored open order ambushes and raids in their mountain homeland, but also formed battle lines when needed with the javelinmen in front and lancers backing them up and cavalry protecting the flanks.
Beginning of campaign
The Syracusan army approached the city from the south and encamped at the ruins of Naxos and set about cutting off the access to the city.[31] The Sicels put up a stubborn defence; the city was perched on cliffs which were not accessible by siege engines unless siege ramps could be built. Dionysius was not interested in starving the Sicels out and set about planning an assault of the city.
Dionysius chose to attack, extend the siege in winter, which was unusual in ancient times as it often meant combating both the elements and the enemy; logistics were also a prime concern as the scope for foraging (crops were not ready for harvest) was limited. However, Dionysius may have based his decision on the fact that the Carthaginians and Rhegians, most likely source of help for the Sicels, would not be prepared for a winter campaign, and the Sicels would be caught off guard as well.
Defenses at Tauronemium
The city of Tauromenion was built atop the 200 m high Mt. Taurus, surrounded by ravines and walls that covered the most vulnerable places. The main acropolis was built on the highest point and overlooks the town, being 212 m from sea level. The Sicel town is said to have another acropolis, which probably occupied the place of the Greek Theater. The western gate of the city was situated on the south wall. The city overlooked the site of Naxos, which was the first Greek colony in Sicily, and from that place the aggression of the Greeks against Sicels began. The Sicels were determined to hold on to Tauromenium, which was a gift from Carthaginians who had never attacked them, and had enabled them to recapture the lands of their forefathers.[22]
Night commando
The most famous siege in Greek history, that of Troy, was resolved by a night attack. Dionysius was no stranger to night operations, having twice pulled off the feat at Motya and Syracuse. He had nothing like the Trojan Horse to dupe the Sicels with and was about to find out third time may not be "charmed" for him.
The Sicels had refused to contest the siege openly so the Greeks settled in at Naxos. The snow covered the heights of Mt. Taurus as the winter solstice approached, and the Greeks observed that the guard was slack on one of the forts of Tauromenium.[22] Dionysius chose a moonless, stormy night to scale the walls of the fortress, probably situated on the peak where the Greek Theatre now stands, with a picked group of mercenaries. The cold and the jagged sides of the cliff took their toll in the dark and Dionysius suffered cuts to his face, but the detachment managed to successfully scale the heights and take possession of the acropolis without difficulty.
Urban warfare
If Dionysius hoped to avoid a fierce urban battle by launching a surprise attack he failed, because just as the Greeks entered the town led by Dionysius the Sicels woke up and began to gather; more soldiers from the Acropolis on Mt. Taurus swelled their ranks and they launched a counterattack. The soldiers of Dionysius, probably tired from their arduous climb, got clobbered, 600 Greeks were immediately cut down and the Sicels sent the survivors tumbling down the side of the mountain. As the Greeks rolled or scrambled down the sides many lost their armor. Dionysius was one of the few who retained their breastplate – a small consolation but a matter of pride for him. Tauromenium remained untaken; Dionysius packed up and went home.
Aftermath
The defeat at Tauromenium had serious consequences. The Greek cities of Akragas and Messana deposed the supporters of Dionysius from power when the news of the debacle became known. The situation worsened when Mago gathered up his forces and raided Messana, but Dionysius defeated the Carthaginians at the Abacaenum to prevent further damage befalling him. Tauromenium remained free for 2 more years before falling victim to super power politics. Caught in a jam at the Battle of Chrysas in 392 BC, both Mago and Dionysius agreed to terms formally concluding the war which started in 398 BC. One on the conditions was Carthage agreeing to Syracusan over-lordship of Sicels. Dionysius occupied Tauromenium in 391 BC, expelled the Sicels and installed his mercenaries on the site. In 358 BC a Greeks town was founded there, and it remained Greek until passing into Roman hands. After settling his affairs in Sicily, Dionysius began a campaign against Rhegion in 390 BC. He failed to take the city in 390 and 389 BC and finally succeeded in 387 BC. Three years later, again he started a war with Carthage that lasted until 375 BC and ended in his defeat.
Bibliography
- Warry, John (1993). Warfare in The Classical World. Salamander Books Ltd. ISBN 1-56619-463-6.
- Lancel, Serge (1997). Carthage A History. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 1-57718-103-4.
- Kern, Paul B. (1999). Ancient Siege Warfare. Indiana University Publishers. ISBN 0-253-33546-9.
- Church, Alfred J. (1886). Carthage, 4th Edition. T. Fisher Unwin.
- Freeman, Edward A. (1894). History of Sicily Vol. IV. Oxford Press.
- Caven, Brian (1990). Dionysius I: War-Lord of Sicily. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04507-7.
- Ray, Fred Eugene. (2008). Land Battles in 5th Century BC Greece. McFarland & Co. Inc. Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7864-3534-0.
Further reading
- Baker, G. P. (1999). Hannibal. Cooper Square Press. ISBN 0-8154-1005-0.
- Bath, Tony (1992). Hannibal's Campaigns. Barns & Noble. ISBN 0-88029-817-0.
- Bath, Tony (1992). Hannibal's Campaigns. Barns & Noble. ISBN 0-88029-817-0.
- Freeman, Edward A. (1892). Sicily Phoenician, Greek & Roman, Third Edition. T. Fisher Unwin.
References
- ^ Church, Alfred J., Carthage, p47
- ^ Caven, Brian, Dionysius I, pp107
- ^ Diod. X.IV.55
- ^ Kern, Paul B., Ancient Siege Warfare, pp183
- ^ Freeman, Edward A., Sicily, pp173
- ^ Kern, Paul B., Ancient Siege Warfare, pp184
- ^ a b Hart, B.H. Liddle, Strategy 2nd Edition, pp15
- ^ Diod. X.IV.59
- ^ a b Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.90
- ^ Polyneaus V.5.1
- ^ Polyneaus V.6.1
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.7
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.14
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.15
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.58
- ^ Freeman, Edward A., Sicily, p173
- ^ a b c Church, Alfred J., Carthage, p53-54
- ^ Lancel, Serge., Carthage A History, pp114
- ^ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol IV, p169
- ^ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol. 4, pp58 – pp59
- ^ Diod. X.IV.90
- ^ a b c Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.88
- ^ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol. 4, pp149 – pp151
- ^ Polyainos V.2.1
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.8
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.40-41
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.44, X.IV.07
- ^ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol IV, pp152
- ^ a b c Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.78
- ^ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily, pp 153- pp156
- ^ a b c Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.87
- ^ Diodorus Siculus X.IV.87
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.95
- ^ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol. 4, pp18 – pp21
- ^ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol. 4, pp107
- ^ Caven, Brian, Dionysius I, p93
- ^ Kern, Paul B., Ancient Siege Warfare, pp178
- ^ Diodurus Siculus, X.IV.47
- ^ Warry, John, Warfare in the Classical Age, pp103
- ISBN 0-253-33546-9
- ^ Freeman, Edward A, History of Sicily Vol. IV, pp164
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, X.III.84
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.40
- ^ Diodorus Siculus XIII.60
- ^ Thucidides, 3.103.1
- ^ Warry, John, Warfare in the Classical Age, pp 103
- ^ a b Ray, Fred Eugene, Land Warfare in 5th Century BC Greece, pp 53-54
External links
- Diodorus Siculus translated by G. Booth (1814) Complete book (scanned by Google)
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
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