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The general concept of artificial machines capable of producing copies of themselves dates back at least several hundred years. An early reference is an anecdote regarding the philosopher [[René Descartes]], who suggested to Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] that the human body could be regarded as a machine; she responded by pointing to a clock and ordering "see to it that it reproduces offspring."<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Scientific American| title=Build Your Own Replicator| volume=285|date=August 2001| pages=38–39| first=Moshe| last= Sipper|author2=James A. Reggia }} Several other variations on this anecdotal response also exist.</ref> Several other variations on this anecdotal response also exist. [[Samuel Butler (novelist)|Samuel Butler]] proposed in his 1872 novel ''[[Erewhon]]'' that machines were already capable of reproducing themselves but it was man who made them do so,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/1.htm#p5 |title=1 |publisher=Molecularassembler.com |date=2005-08-01 |accessdate=2009-09-16}}</ref> and added that ''"machines which reproduce machinery do not reproduce machines after their own kind"''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Samuel Butler |url=http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-ButErew.html |title=Erewhon, Chapter 24, The book Of the Machines |publisher=Nzetc.org |accessdate=2009-09-16}}</ref> In [[George Eliot|George Eliot's]] 1879 book ''[[Impressions of Theophrastus Such]]'', a series of essays that she wrote in the character of a fictional scholar named Theophrastus, the essay "Shadows of the Coming Race" speculated about self-replicating machines, with Theophrastus asking "how do I know that they may not be ultimately made to carry, or may not in themselves evolve, conditions of self-supply, self-repair, and reproduction".<ref>{{cite web|author=George Eliot |url=http://www.online-literature.com/george_eliot/theophrastus-such/17/ |title=Impressions of Theophrastus Such, Chapter 17, Shadows of the Coming Race |publisher=online-literature.com |accessdate=2017-08-25}}</ref> |
The general concept of artificial machines capable of producing copies of themselves dates back at least several hundred years. An early reference is an anecdote regarding the philosopher [[René Descartes]], who suggested to Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] that the human body could be regarded as a machine; she responded by pointing to a clock and ordering "see to it that it reproduces offspring."<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Scientific American| title=Build Your Own Replicator| volume=285|date=August 2001| pages=38–39| first=Moshe| last= Sipper|author2=James A. Reggia }} Several other variations on this anecdotal response also exist.</ref> Several other variations on this anecdotal response also exist. [[Samuel Butler (novelist)|Samuel Butler]] proposed in his 1872 novel ''[[Erewhon]]'' that machines were already capable of reproducing themselves but it was man who made them do so,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/1.htm#p5 |title=1 |publisher=Molecularassembler.com |date=2005-08-01 |accessdate=2009-09-16}}</ref> and added that ''"machines which reproduce machinery do not reproduce machines after their own kind"''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Samuel Butler |url=http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-ButErew.html |title=Erewhon, Chapter 24, The book Of the Machines |publisher=Nzetc.org |accessdate=2009-09-16}}</ref> In [[George Eliot|George Eliot's]] 1879 book ''[[Impressions of Theophrastus Such]]'', a series of essays that she wrote in the character of a fictional scholar named Theophrastus, the essay "Shadows of the Coming Race" speculated about self-replicating machines, with Theophrastus asking "how do I know that they may not be ultimately made to carry, or may not in themselves evolve, conditions of self-supply, self-repair, and reproduction".<ref>{{cite web|author=George Eliot |url=http://www.online-literature.com/george_eliot/theophrastus-such/17/ |title=Impressions of Theophrastus Such, Chapter 17, Shadows of the Coming Race |publisher=online-literature.com |accessdate=2017-08-25}}</ref> |
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In 1802 [[William Paley]] formulated the first known [[teleological argument]] depicting machines producing other machines,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/1.htm#p11 |title=1 |publisher=Molecularassembler.com |date=2005-08-01 |accessdate=2009-09-16}}</ref> suggesting that the [[watchmaker argument|question of who originally made a watch]] was rendered moot if it were demonstrated that the watch was able to manufacture a copy of itself.<ref>{{cite book| first=William| last= Paley| title= Natural Theology: or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, Collected from the Appearances of Nature| chapter=Chapter i, Section 1| publisher= E. Goodale| year= 1802| isbn=0-576-29166-8}}; [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/p/pd-modeng/pd-modeng-idx?type=HTML&rgn=TEI.2&byte=53049319 (12th Edition, 1809)]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} See also: {{cite book| editor=Michael Ruse| title=Philosophy of Biology| year=1998| pages=36–40}}; {{cite journal| first=Richard| last= Lenski| title=Twice as Natural| journal=Nature| volume= 414|date=15 November 2001| page=255| doi=10.1038/35104715| pmid=11713507| issue=6861}}</ref> Scientific study of self-reproducing machines was anticipated by [[John Bernal]] as early as 1929<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/Bernal/| last=Bernal| first= John Desmond| title=The World, the Flesh and the Devil: An Enquiry into the Future of the Three Enemies of the Rational Soul| year=1929}}</ref> and by mathematicians such as [[Stephen Kleene]] who began developing [[recursion theory]] in the 1930s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/1.htm#p14 |title=1 |publisher=Molecularassembler.com |date=2005-08-01 |accessdate=2009-09-16}}</ref> Much of this latter work was motivated by interest in information processing and algorithms rather than physical implementation of such a system, however. |
In 1802 [[William Paley]] formulated the first known [[teleological argument]] depicting machines producing other machines,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/1.htm#p11 |title=1 |publisher=Molecularassembler.com |date=2005-08-01 |accessdate=2009-09-16}}</ref> suggesting that the [[watchmaker argument|question of who originally made a watch]] was rendered moot if it were demonstrated that the watch was able to manufacture a copy of itself.<ref>{{cite book| first=William| last= Paley| title= Natural Theology: or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, Collected from the Appearances of Nature| chapter=Chapter i, Section 1| publisher= E. Goodale| year= 1802| isbn=0-576-29166-8}}; [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/p/pd-modeng/pd-modeng-idx?type=HTML&rgn=TEI.2&byte=53049319 (12th Edition, 1809)]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} See also: {{cite book| editor=Michael Ruse| title=Philosophy of Biology| year=1998| pages=36–40}}; {{cite journal| first=Richard| last= Lenski| title=Twice as Natural| journal=Nature| volume= 414|date=15 November 2001| page=255| doi=10.1038/35104715| pmid=11713507| issue=6861}}</ref> Scientific study of self-reproducing machines was anticipated by [[John Bernal]] as early as 1929<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/Bernal/| last=Bernal| first= John Desmond| title=The World, the Flesh and the Devil: An Enquiry into the Future of the Three Enemies of the Rational Soul| year=1929}}</ref> and by mathematicians such as [[Stephen Kleene]] who began developing [[recursion theory]] in the 1930s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/1.htm#p14 |title=1 |publisher=Molecularassembler.com |date=2005-08-01 |accessdate=2009-09-16}}</ref> Much of this latter work was motivated by interest in information processing and algorithms rather than physical implementation of such a system, however. In the course of the 1950s, suggestions of several increasingly simple mechanical systems capable of self-reproduction were made—notably by [[Lionel Penrose]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Wolfram|first=Stephen|title=A New Kind of Science|publisher=Wolfram Media, Inc.|year=2002|page=1179|isbn=1-57955-008-8}}</ref> |
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===von Neumann's kinematic model=== |
===von Neumann's kinematic model=== |
Revision as of 16:11, 22 June 2018
A self-replicating machine is a type of
A self-replicating machine is an artificial
Historians of
History
The general concept of artificial machines capable of producing copies of themselves dates back at least several hundred years. An early reference is an anecdote regarding the philosopher
In 1802
von Neumann's kinematic model
A detailed conceptual proposal for a physical non-biological self-replicating system was first put forward by mathematician
Moore's artificial living plants
In 1956 mathematician Edward F. Moore proposed the first known suggestion for a practical real-world self-replicating machine, also published in Scientific American.[18][19] Moore's "artificial living plants" were proposed as machines able to use air, water and soil as sources of raw materials and to draw its energy from sunlight via a solar battery or a steam engine. He chose the seashore as an initial habitat for such machines, giving them easy access to the chemicals in seawater, and suggested that later generations of the machine could be designed to float freely on the ocean's surface as self-replicating factory barges or to be placed in barren desert terrain that was otherwise useless for industrial purposes. The self-replicators would be "harvested" for their component parts, to be used by humanity in other non-replicating machines.
Dyson's replicating systems
The next major development of the concept of self-replicating machines was a series of thought experiments proposed by physicist
Advanced Automation for Space Missions
In 1980, inspired by a 1979 "New Directions Workshop" held at Wood's Hole,
The reference design included small computer-controlled electric carts running on rails inside the factory, mobile "paving machines" that used large parabolic mirrors to focus sunlight on lunar
Power would be provided by a "canopy" of solar cells supported on pillars. The other machinery would be placed under the canopy.
A "casting robot" would use sculpting tools and templates to make plaster molds. Plaster was selected because the molds are easy to make, can make precise parts with good surface finishes, and the plaster can be easily recycled afterward using an oven to bake the water back out. The robot would then cast most of the parts either from nonconductive molten rock (basalt) or purified metals. A carbon dioxide laser cutting and welding system was also included.
A more speculative, more complex microchip fabricator was specified to produce the computer and electronic systems, but the designers also said that it might prove practical to ship the chips from Earth as if they were "vitamins."
A 2004 study supported by NASA's Institute for Advanced Concepts took this idea further.[24] Some experts are beginning to consider self-replicating machines for asteroid mining.
Much of the design study was concerned with a simple, flexible chemical system for processing the ores, and the differences between the ratio of elements needed by the replicator, and the ratios available in lunar regolith. The element that most limited the growth rate was chlorine, needed to process regolith for aluminium. Chlorine is very rare in lunar regolith.
Lackner-Wendt Auxon replicators
In 1995, inspired by Dyson's 1970 suggestion of seeding uninhabited deserts on Earth with self-replicating machines for industrial development,
Recent work
Self-replicating rapid prototypers
Early experimentation with rapid prototyping in 1997-2000 was not expressly oriented toward reproducing rapid prototyping systems themselves, but rather extended simulated "evolutionary robotics" techniques into the physical world. Later developments in rapid prototyping have given the process the ability to produce a wide variety of electronic and mechanical components, making this a rapidly developing frontier in self-replicating system research.[29]
In 1998 Chris Phoenix informally outlined a design for a hydraulically powered replicator a few cubic feet in volume that used ultraviolet light to cure soft plastic feedstock and a fluidic logic control system, but didn't address most of the details of assembly procedures, error rates, or machining tolerances.[30][31]
In 2005,
Some researchers have proposed a microfactory of specialized machines that support recursion—nearly all of the parts of all of the machines in the factory can be manufactured by the factory.[33]
NIAC studies on self-replicating systems
In the spirit of the 1980 "Advanced Automation for Space Missions" study, the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts began several studies of self-replicating system design in 2002 and 2003. Four phase I grants were awarded:
- Hod Lipson (Cornell University), "Autonomous Self-Extending Machines for Accelerating Space Exploration"[34]
- Gregory Chirikjian (Johns Hopkins University), "Architecture for Unmanned Self-Replicating Lunar Factories"[35]
- Paul Todd (Space Hardware Optimization Technology Inc.), "Robotic Lunar Ecopoiesis"[36][37]
- Tihamer Toth-Fejel (General Dynamics), "Modeling Kinematic Cellular Automata: An Approach to Self-Replication"[38][39] The study concluded that complexity of the development was equal to that of a Pentium 4, and promoted a design based on cellular automata.
Bootstrapping Self-Replicating Factories in Space
In 2012, NASA researchers Metzger, Muscatello, Mueller, and Mantovani argued for a bootstrapping approach to start self-replicating factories in space.[40] They developed this concept on the basis of In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) technologies that NASA has been developing to "live off the land" on the Moon or Mars. Their modeling showed that in just 20 to 40 years this industry could become self-sufficient then grow to large size, enabling greater exploration in space as well as providing benefits back to Earth. In 2014, Thomas Kalil of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy published on the White House blog an interview with Metzger on bootstrapping solar system civilization through self-replicating space industry.[41] Kalil requested the public submit ideas for how "the Administration, the private sector, philanthropists, the research community, and storytellers can further these goals." Kalil connected this concept to what former NASA Chief technologist Mason Peck has dubbed "Massless Exploration", the ability to make everything in space so that you do not need to launch it from Earth. Peck has said, "...all the mass we need to explore the solar system is already in space. It's just in the wrong shape."[42] In 2016, Metzger argued that fully self-replicating industry can be started over several decades by astronauts at a lunar outpost for a total cost (outpost plus starting the industry) of about a third of the space budgets of the International Space Station partner nations, and that this industry would solve Earth's energy and environmental problems in addition to providing massless exploration.[43]
Cornell University's self-assembler
In 2005, a team of researchers at
New York University artificial DNA tile motifs
In 2011, a team of scientists at New York University created a structure called 'BTX' (bent triple helix) based around three double helix molecules, each made from a short strand of DNA. Treating each group of three double-helices as a code letter, they can (in principle) build up self-replicating structures that encode large quantities of information.[45][46]
Self-replication of magnetic polymers
In 2001 Jarle Breivik at University of Oslo created a system of magnetic building blocks, which in response to temperature fluctuations, spontaneously form self-replicating polymers.[47]
Self-replication of neural circuits
In 1968
Partial construction
Partial construction is the concept that the constructor creates a partially constructed (rather than fully formed) offspring, which is then left to complete its own construction.[51][52]
The von Neumann model of self-replication envisages that the mother automaton should construct all portions of daughter automatons, without exception and prior to the initiation of such daughters. Partial construction alters the construction relationship between mother and daughter automatons, such that the mother constructs but a portion of the daughter, and upon initiating this portion of the daughter, thereafter retracts from imparting further influence upon the daughter. Instead, the daughter automaton is left to complete its own development. This is to say, means exist by which automatons may develop via the mechanism of a zygote.
Self-replicating spacecraft
The idea of an automated spacecraft capable of constructing copies of itself was first proposed in scientific literature in 1974 by
Other references
- A number of patents have been granted for self-replicating machine concepts.[56] The most directly relevant include U.S. patent 4,734,856 "Autogeneric system" Inventor: Davis; Dannie E. (Elmore, AL) (March 1988), U.S. patent 5,659,477 "Self reproducing fundamental fabricating machines (F-Units)" Inventor: Collins; Charles M. (Burke, VA) (August 1997), U.S. patent 5,764,518 " Self reproducing fundamental fabricating machine system" Inventor: Collins; Charles M. (Burke, VA)(June 1998); Collins' PCT:[57] and U.S. patent 6,510,359 "Method and system for self-replicating manufacturing stations" Inventors: Merkle; Ralph C. (Sunnyvale, CA), Parker; Eric G. (Wylie, TX), Skidmore; George D. (Plano, TX) (January 2003).
- Macroscopic replicators are mentioned briefly in the fourth chapter of K. Eric Drexler's 1986 book Engines of Creation.[3]
- In 1995, Nick Szabo proposed a challenge to build a macroscale replicator from Lego robot kits and similar basic parts.[58] Szabo wrote that this approach was easier than previous proposals for macroscale replicators, but successfully predicted that even this method would not lead to a macroscale replicator within ten years.
- In 2004, Robert Freitas and Ralph Merkle published the first comprehensive review of the field of self-replication (from which much of the material in this article is derived, with permission of the authors), in their book Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines, which includes 3000+ literature references.[1] This book included a new molecular assembler design,[59] a primer on the mathematics of replication,[60] and the first comprehensive analysis of the entire replicator design space.[61]
- In 2006, the strategy video game Sword of the Stars included an enemy of the Unknown Menace type called Von Neumann, which gradually replicated and spread throughout the galaxy once encountered.
Prospects for implementation
As the use of industrial automation has expanded over time, some factories have begun to approach a semblance of self-sufficiency that is suggestive of self-replicating machines.[62] However, such factories are unlikely to achieve "full closure"[63] until the cost and flexibility of automated machinery comes close to that of human labour and the manufacture of spare parts and other components locally becomes more economical than transporting them from elsewhere. As Samuel Butler has pointed out in Erewhon, replication of partially closed universal machine tool factories is already possible. Since safety is a primary goal of all legislative consideration of regulation of such development, future development efforts may be limited to systems which lack either control, matter, or energy closure. Fully capable machine replicators are most useful for developing resources in dangerous environments which are not easily reached by existing transportation systems (such as outer space).
An artificial replicator can be considered to be a form of
See also
- Grey goo scenario
- Self-reconfiguring modular robot
- AI takeover
- 3D printing
- Computer virus
- Computer worm
- Ecophagy
- Existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence
- Astrochicken
- Lights out (manufacturing)
- Nanorobotics
- Spiegelman's Monster
- Self-replicating machines in fiction
- Self-replicating spacecraft
- RepRap project
References
- ^ ISBN 1-57059-690-5.
- ^ "3.11 Freitas Interstellar Probe Replicator (1979-1980)". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ a b Drexler, K. Eric (1986). "Engines of Abundance (Chapter 4) Clanking Replicators". Engines of Creation.
- ^ Colvin 1947, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Sipper, Moshe; James A. Reggia (August 2001). "Build Your Own Replicator". Scientific American. 285: 38–39. Several other variations on this anecdotal response also exist.
- ^ "1". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ Samuel Butler. "Erewhon, Chapter 24, The book Of the Machines". Nzetc.org. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ George Eliot. "Impressions of Theophrastus Such, Chapter 17, Shadows of the Coming Race". online-literature.com. Retrieved 2017-08-25.
- ^ "1". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- PMID 11713507.
- ^ Bernal, John Desmond (1929). "The World, the Flesh and the Devil: An Enquiry into the Future of the Three Enemies of the Rational Soul".
- ^ "1". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ISBN 1-57955-008-8.
- ISBN 0-598-37798-0.
- ^ "2.1 Von Neumann's Contributions". Molecularassembler.com. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ "2.1.3 The Cellular Automaton (CA) Model of Machine Replication". Molecularassembler.com. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- .
- .
- ^ "3.1 Moore Artificial Living Plants (1956)". Molecularassembler.com. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ Freeman J. Dyson, "The twenty-first century," Vanuxem Lecture delivered at Princeton University, 26 February 1970.
- ^ "3.6 Dyson Terraforming Replicators (1970, 1979)". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ Dyson, Freeman J. (1979). Chapter 18: Thought Experiments. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 194–204.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ Robert Freitas, William P. Gilbreath, ed. (1982). Advanced Automation for Space Missions. NASA Conference Publication CP-2255 (N83-15348).
- ^ Toth-Fejel, Tihamer (2004). "Modeling Kinematic Cellular Automata: An Approach to Self-Replication". NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts.
- .
- ^ Lackner, Klaus S., and Wendt, Christopher H., "Self-reproducing machine systems for global scale projects," Document LA-UR-93-2886, 4th International Conference and Exposition on Engineering, Construction and Operations in Space/Conference and Exposition/Demonstrations on Robotic for Challenging Environments, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 26 February – 3 March 1994
- ^ "3.15". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ Bass, Thomas (October 1995). "Robot, build thyself". Discover: 64–72.
- ^ "Freitas 2004, pp. 64-67". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ Christopher J. Phoenix (March 21, 1998). "Partial design for macro-scale machining self-replicator". Newsgroup: sci.nanotech.
- ^ "3.20". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ "WebHome". Archived from the original on 2007-01-12. Retrieved 2007-02-18.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ James Jones. CubeSpawn. 2009.
- ^ Lipson, Hod; Evan Malone. "Autonomous Self-Extending Machines for Accelerating Space Exploration" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-01-04.
- ^ Chirikjian, Gregory S. (April 26, 2004). "An Architecture for Self-Replicating Lunar Factories" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-01-04.
- ^ Todd, Paul (30 April 2004). "Final Progress Report on Robotic Lunar Ecopoiesis Test Bed" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-01-04. (phase I report)
- ^ Todd, Paul (July 6, 2006). "Robotic Lunar Ecopoiesis Test Bed" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-01-04. (phase II report)
- ^ Toth-Fejel, Tihamer; Robert Freitas; Matt Moses (April 30, 2004). "Modeling Kinematic Cellular Automata" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-01-04.
- ^ "3.25.4 Toth-Fejel Kinematic Cellular Automata (2003-2004)". Molecularassembler.com. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- . Retrieved 2016-09-24.
- ^ "Bootstrapping a Solar System Civilization". The White House. 2014-10-14. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
- ^ "Exciting new ideas in space technology are getting short-changed by Congress". PRI.org. 2015-01-15. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
- . Retrieved 2016-12-09.
- ^ "Researchers build a robot that can reproduce". Physorg.com. 2005-05-11. Retrieved 2010-06-30.
- ^ "Self-Replication Process Holds Promise for Production of New Materials". Science Daily. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
- . Retrieved 2011-10-13.
- ^ "Self-Organization of Template-Replicating Polymers and the Spontaneous Rise of Genetic Information". Entroy. Retrieved 2015-01-31.
- ^ Harris, Zellig (1968). Mathematical Structures of Language. New York, NY: John Wiley and Son. p. 17.
- .
- doi:10.3389/fncom.2015.00090.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link - ^ Buckley, William R. (2008). "Signal Crossing Solutions in von Neumann Self-replicating Cellular Automata". Automata 2008.
- .
- ^ "3.11". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ Arbib, Michael A. (1974). Cyril Ponnamperuma, A. G. W. Cameron (ed.). The Likelihood of the Evolution of Communicating Intelligences on Other Planets. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 59–78.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - Bibcode:1980JBIS...33..251F. Retrieved 2008-10-01.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ "3.16 The Collins Patents on Reproductive Mechanics (1997-1998)". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ WIPO. "(WO/1996/020453) SELF REPRODUCING FUNDAMENTAL FABRICATING MACHINES (F-UNITS)". Wipo.int. Retrieved 2009-09-16.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Szabo, Nick. "Macroscale Replicator". Archived from the original on 2006-03-07. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
- ^ "4.11.3 Merkle-Freitas Hydrocarbon Molecular Assembler (2000-2003)". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ "5.9 Brief Mathematical Primer on Self-Replicating Systems". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ "5.1.9 Freitas-Merkle Map of the Kinematic Replicator Design Space (2003-2004)". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ "3.7 Self-Replicating Automated Industrial Factory (1973-present)". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ "5.6 Closure Theory and Closure Engineering". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ "5.1.9.L Evolvability". Molecularassembler.com. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ "5.11 Replicators and Public Safety". Molecularassembler.com. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-0-917914-86-7). Foreword by Ralph Flanders.
- M. Sipper, Fifty years of research on self-replication: An overview, Artificial Life, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 237-257, Summer 1998.
Other references
- Freeman Dyson expanded upon Neumann's automata theories, and advanced a biotechnology-inspired theory. See Astrochicken.
- The first technical design study of a self-replicating interstellar probe was published in a 1980 paper by Robert Freitas
- Clanking replicators are also mentioned briefly in the fourth chapter of K. Eric Drexler's 1986 book Engines of Creation.
- Article about a proposed clanking replicator system to be used for developing Earthly deserts in the October 1995 Discover Magazine, featuring forests of solar panels that powered desalination equipment to irrigate the land.
- In 1995, Nick Szabo proposed a challenge to build a macroscale replicator from Lego(tm) robot kits and similar basic parts. Szabo wrote that this approach was easier than previous proposals for macroscale replicators, but successfully predicted that even this method would not lead to a macroscale replicator within ten years.
- In 1998, fluidic logic. Power for the process could be supplied by a pressurized source of the liquid.
- In 2001, Peter Ward mentioned an escaped clanking replicator destroying the human race in his book Future Evolution.
- In 2004, General Dynamics completed a study for NASA's Institute for Advanced Concepts. It concluded that complexity of the development was equal to that of a Pentium 4, and promoted a design based on cellular automata.
- In 2004, Robert Freitas and Ralph Merkle published the first comprehensive review of the field of self-replication, in their book Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines, which includes 3000+ literature references.
- In 2005, GNU GPL. [1]
- In 2015, advances in memristors.
The power source might be