Taensa
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Natchez |
The Taensa (also Taënsas, Tensas, Tensaw, and Grands Taensas in French
The Taensa migrated as a result of
History
Prehistory
The Taensa and the closely related
The Tensas Basin region where their villages were found has several Coles Creek and Plaquemine era ceremonial sites with platform mounds located very nearby, including the Coles Creek era Balmoral Mounds (occupied circa 700 and 1200 CE), and the Plaquemine era Routh Mounds (occupied circa 1200 to 1350 CE) and Flowery Mound (occupied circa 1200–1541) sites.[11] .[12][13][14][9]
Protohistory
The post-Hernando de Soto entrada Transylvania Phase (1550-1700 CE) of the Tensas Basin saw the increasing spread of Mississippian influences diffusing southward from Arkansas and northwestern Mississippi.[15] The Jordan Mounds site on a relict channel of the Arkansas River in northeastern Louisianas Morehouse Parish was constructed during the protohistoric period between 1540 and 1685. The builders were an intrusive group in the area, Mississippianized peoples who were possibly refugees from the Mississippi River area to the east and were escaping the collapse of their society brought about by the aftereffects of European contact. By the late 1600s the site was abandoned.[16]
Historians and archaeologists such as Marvin Jeter have theorized that the Plaquemine "Northern Natchezan" ancestors of the Taensa were in part some of the peoples documented in the early 1540s by the de Soto expedition in southeastern Arkansas and northwestern Mississippi. After the disastrous encounter and subsequent population crash due to the introduction of European diseases and political upheaval left in de Soto's wake, remnant populations of Northern Natchezans migrated down the Mississippi toward their Southern Natchezan cousins.[17][18][19]
European contact
The first securely documented European contact with the Taensa was by the French
In 1698 French
During his time with the Taensa, de Montigny prevented them from performing acts of ritual human sacrifice as part of the funeral rites for a deceased chief. Because of this, the Taensa later blamed de Montigny when lightning struck their wattle and daub temple and burned it down. He left to join the Natchez in 1790,[23] and his mission to the Taensa was taken over by Jean-François Buisson de Saint-Cosme. Along with other native peoples of the lower Mississippi River, the Taensa were subject to slave raids and epidemics of European diseases such as smallpox during this time period. As the population of the Taensa steadily decreased, de Saint-Cosme in 1700 endeavored in vain to have them join with the much larger Natchez and consolidate the two missions. De Saint-Cosme settled among the Taensa and the Natchez for less than a year before leaving.[4][25][26][27]
Later history
During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, French colonists in the American Southeast initiated a power struggle with those living in the colony of
Though their initial relations with the Europeans had been friendly, the rivalry of the European powers strained native populations throughout the region. The Taensa ultimately migrated in 1715,
Early in the nineteenth century, the Taensa petitioned the
Culture
The Taensa were a Natchezan people who separated from the main body of the Natchez sometime prior to European contact with the Lower Mississippi Valley region. As such their languages, political, religious, and material cultures were very similar to the Natchez. When they first enter the historical record they are found just to the northwest of the Natchez and on the western bank of the Mississippi as opposed to its eastern bank.[30][2]
Like some other inhabitants of the area, such as the Natchez,
Ceramics
The beginning of the Transylvania Phase (1550-1700 CE) of the Tensas Basin region saw the increasing spread of Mississippian influences diffusing southward from what is now southeastern Arkansas. This is most identifiable in ceramic traditions. The Mississippian peoples of the Central Mississippi Valley used different vessel forms, tempering agents, and decorations than the Plaquemine peoples of the Lower Mississippi Valley. By the late 17th century these changes in ceramic technology had reached the Taensa in the Lower Tensas Basin.[15] The pottery of the Taensa was made with typical Mississippian culture pottery shapes and used the Mississippian hallmark of crushed mussel shell as a tempering agent, but was still being engraved with decorative designs typical of the Plaquemine area. Pottery from the Natchez sites of nearby western Mississippi still used the traditional Plaquemine grog tempering and decorative designs. On this basis the Taensa are considered to be the last Mississippian culture group to inhabit the Tensas River valley of Louisiana.[34]
Architecture
The Taensa were sedentary
This pattern of plazas flanked by mounds with temples, elite residences and mortuary structures at their summits was inherited from their Plaquemine and Coles Creek ancestors, and was a village arrangement widely employed throughout the southeast.[5] The Coles Creek era Balmoral Mounds and early Plaquemine era Routh Mounds (occupied circa 1200 to 1350 CE) sites which features this same layout are also located on the western bank of Lake St Joseph near where the Taensa lived in the 17th century.[12][13][14][9]
Chiefs residence
The temple and chiefly residence stood on opposite sides of the plaza. The chiefs cabin was a square building measuring 40 feet (12 m) on each side with clay plastered walls 10 feet (3.0 m) high and 2 feet (0.61 m) thick. It was capped by a roof 15 feet (4.6 m) in height that was covered in cane mats woven so tightly they were said to be waterproof. The great temple was similar in appearance but had three carved eagle effigies at its summit. Inside beaten copper plaques and painting adorned the walls. There was a fire of burning cane in the center and low couch-like beds lined the walls. The chief sat on one that acted as a throne where he would hold court surrounded by his wives, retainers, and advisers who were all dressed in white garments woven from mulberry bark. Included among the advisors were the lesser chiefs, headmen, and councillors who oversaw the other villages.[38][39]
Great Temple
The Taensa temple compares with similar descriptions recorded by artist Alexandre de Batz of the main temple at the contemporaneous Grand Village of the Natchez. Like the Natchez temple, it was situated on a low platform mound flanking the plaza.,[24] but unlike the Natchez temple it was surrounded with a palisade of sharpened stakes decorated with human skulls taken during wars with their enemies. Inside the palisade was a large dome-shaped structure over 100 feet (30 m) in circumference. At the peak of the roof were three red, yellow, and white painted wooden eagle effigies. The bird carvings faced east toward the rising sun. Woven cane mats covered the structure's outer walls and roof, and the temple was painted red. A guardian lived in a small shed that stood near the door.[40][41]
Chroniclers describe the inside of the temple as having shelves holding oval-shaped split-cane baskets that were beautifully woven and painted. Inside were interred the bones of their chiefs and other honored dead, human and animal forms carved in stone, wood, and modeled as ceramic figurines, stuffed owls, jawbones of large fish, "heads and tails of extraordinary serpents", pieces of quartz crystal, and some European glass objects. There was also an altar decorated with a rope of human scalplocks. A ceremonial eternal fire representing the Sun was kept burning inside the building using an arrangement of three large hickory logs that were kept at a low burn and only slowly pushed into the fire. It was tended and guarded by two priests and other attendants who had a duty to make sure it was never extinguished. Except for the immediate relatives of the chief, all women and commoners were forbidden to enter the temple. Food offerings for their gods and the honored dead were frequently brought to the temple.[40][41]
Religion
Taensa religious life revolved around the worship of the sun, represented by the sacred fire kept perpetually burning inside their temple. Their elite class of hereditary royalty were known as suns and like the Natchez they believed their chief, whose official name was Yak-stalchil (Great Sun), was matrilineally descended from the sun through his mother the "Grande Soleille" (French for "female Great Sun"). Their mythology claimed that in the distant past a man and woman who shone like the sun had come down to them to be their rulers. Afterwards they turned to stone. Stone statues fitting this description are recorded by early observers as being worshiped as the original couple in the temple. The Taensa rulers claimed descent from this mythological couple, making their social order in effect a solar theocracy. The eldest daughter of the female Great Sun inherited her mothers position. Her eldest son inherited the position and name of Yak-stalchil. Her second eldest son inherited the position of War Chief along with the name and title of Obalalkabiche (Tattooed Serpent).[42][38][43][44]
Similar
Mortuary traditions
Upon the death of high-ranking individuals, the Taensa practiced ritual human sacrifice of retainers to accompany them as servants in the afterlife. An early chronicler, Henri de Tonti, wrote that when their Great Chief died, "They sacrifice his youngest wife, his house steward, and a hundred men to accompany him in the other world." This high number is thought to be exaggerated compared to other known sacrificial deaths at similar rituals among the Natchez, which were recorded by other observers.[46]
French missionary François de Montigny reported that after the death of a chief, twelve victims were killed to accompany him. They were sacrificed by having their heads broken, and there would have been more victims without the French intervention. During his conversions and baptisms, de Montigny implored the Taensa to discontinue the practice. A few months later in the spring of 1700 the Taensa temple was struck by lightning. The Taensa priest immediately blamed its destruction on the French priest, because he had persuaded them to suspend their ancestral customs. After exhortations from the native priest, five women threw their children onto the flames of the burning temple as sacrificial victims. Great honor was associated with such a sacrifice, and the women were held in high esteem. After the sacrifice they were clothed in special white garments made of mulberry bark thread usually reserved for the nobility and had a white feather placed on their heads. They then were led in a procession to the chief's house, which was in the process of being converted into the new temple. People gave them gifts and there were eight days of ceremonies to honor them.[35][2][47]
Taensa mortuary traditions for the elites was to first bury the deceased and at a later date exhume and burn the body. The defleshed bones were then collected into a bundle and placed in a split cane basket which would then reside in the temple which also acted as a mortuary house.[48]
Language
Early chroniclers de Montigny, Saint-Cosme, and Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz described the Taensa language as being nearly identical with the Natchez language; the missionaries were learning the latter language in their efforts to convert the Natchez and Taensa to Christianity.[49]
Linguists consider the Natchezan language family to be a language isolate.[50] The best known connection proposed between Natchezan languages and other languages is Mary Haas' Gulf hypothesis, in which she conceived of a macrofamily comprising Muskogean and a number of language isolates of the southeastern US: Atakapa, Chitimacha, Natchez/Taensa, and Tunica. This hypothesis is now generally rejected by historical linguists; but a number of Muskogean scholars continue to believe that Muskogean is related to Natchez.[51]
The meaning of the Taensa name is unknown, although it is believed by anthropologists and linguists to be an
Taensa language hoax
Between 1880 and 1882, a young clerical student in Paris named Jean Parisot published what was purported to be "material of the Taensa language, including papers, songs, a grammar and vocabulary"; this generated considerable interest among philologists. There was doubt about this material for many years; noted American anthropologist and linguist John R. Swanton conclusively proved the work to be a hoax in a series of publications in 1908-1910.[49][52]
See also
- History of the Tunica people
- Tunica-Biloxi
References
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- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Mooney, James (1912). "Taensa Indians". In Knight, K. (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Robert Appleton Co. Retrieved 2018-01-22.
- ^ . Retrieved March 7, 2017.
- ^ ISBN 9780384590106.
- ^ a b c Neuman, Robert W.; Hawkins, Nancy W. (1993). "Louisiana Prehistory : Plaquemine-Mississippian". Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission, Louisiana Dept. Culture, Recreation and Tourism. Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2018-01-22.
- ^ ISBN 9780807139646.
- JSTOR 20707952.
- ^ Downs, Lauren Elizabeth (2012), The glass site (22Wr502): An investigation of Plaquemine culture architecture, occupation, and interaction in the northern portion of the Natchez Bluffs region, Mississippi (PDF), The University of Alabama, retrieved 2018-01-22
- ^ a b c Roe, Lori (2007). "Coles Creek antecedents of Plaquemine mound construction". In Rees, Mark A.; Livingood, Patrick C. (eds.). Plaquemine Archaeology. University of Alabama Press. pp. 20–37.
- ^ Neuman, Robert W.; Hawkins, Nancy W. (1993). "Louisiana Prehistory : Marksville". Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission, Louisiana Dept. Culture, Recreation and Tourism. Retrieved 2018-01-22.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Indian Mounds of Northeast Louisiana : Flowery Mound". Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission, Louisiana Dept. Culture, Recreation and Tourism. Retrieved 2018-01-25.
- ^ a b "Indian Mounds of Northeast Louisiana : Balmoral Mounds". Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission, Louisiana Dept. Culture, Recreation and Tourism. Retrieved 2018-01-24.
- ^ a b "Balmoral Mounds". Indian Country Media. Retrieved 2018-01-24.
- ^ a b Hally, David J. (1972). "Chapter 3 : Routh Phase" (PDF). The Plaquemine and Mississippian Occupations of the Upper Tensas Basin, Louisiana (Doctoral thesis). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Department of Anthropology, Harvard University. Retrieved 2017-01-25.
- ^ a b Hally, David J. (1972). "Chapter VIII : Summary and conclusions" (PDF). The Plaquemine and Mississippian occupations of the Upper Tensas Basin, Louisiana (Doctoral thesis). Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge. Retrieved 2018-01-25.
- JSTOR 40712974.
- ^ Jeter, Marvin D. (2007). "Outer limits of Plaquemine culture". In Rees, Mark A.; Livingood, Patrick C. (eds.). Plaquemine Archaeology. University of Alabama Press. pp. 192–194.
- ^ Jeter, Marvin D.; Rose, Jerome C. G.; Williams, Ishmael Jr.; Harmon, Anna M. (1989), Archeology and Bioarcheology of the Lower Mississippi Valley and Trans-Mississippi South in Arkansas and Louisiana (PDF), Arkansas Archeological Survey, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, p. 184
- ISBN 9780199977062.
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- ^ Roger Baudier. (1939), The Catholic Church in Louisiana. New Orleans, LA : A.W. Hyatt. pp. 16-17.
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- ^ ISBN 9781604733099.
- ^ ISBN 978-0803270701.
- ^ Baillargeon, Noël (1974), Dictionary of Canadian Biography : François de Montigny, vol. 3, Toronto, CAN: University of Toronto/Université Laval, retrieved 2017-01-22
- ^ Mooney, James (1912). . Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 13.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0803271159.
- ^ " (…) it is agreed, that … the confines between the dominions of his Britannick Majesty and those of his Most Christian Majesty, in that part of the world, shall be fixed irrevocably by a line drawn along the middle of the River Mississippi, from its source to the river Iberville, and from hence, by a line drawn along the middle of this river, and the lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the sea; and for this purpose, the Most Christian King cedes in full right, and guaranties to his Britannick Majesty the river and port of Mobile, and every thing which he possesses, or ought to possess, on the left side of the river Mississippi, except the town of New Orleans and the island in which it is situated, which shall remain to France, (…)"— Article VII of the Treaty of Paris (1763) at Wikisource
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Further reading
- Galloway, Patricia; Jackson, Jason Baird (2004). "Natchez and neighboring groups". In Fogelson, R. D. (vol. ed.); Sturtevant, W. C. (ser. ed.) (eds.). Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Vol. 14. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 598–615. ISBN 978-0160723001. Retrieved March 7, 2017.
- Goddard, Ives (2005). "The Indigenous Languages of the Southeast". Anthropological Linguistics. 47 (1): 1–60. JSTOR 25132315.
- Le Page Du Pratz (1758). Histoire de la Louisane. Vol. 3 vols. Paris; transl. London, 1763, 1774.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link) - Jackson, Jason Baird; Fogelson, Raymond D; Sturtevant, William C. (2004). "History of Ethnological and Linguistic Research". In Fogelson, R. D. (vol. ed.); Sturtevant, W. C. (ser. ed.) (eds.). Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Vol. 14. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 31–47. ISBN 978-0160723001. Retrieved March 7, 2017.
- Johnson, M.; Hook, R. (1992). The Native Tribes of North America. Compendium Publishing. ISBN 978-1872004037.
- Margry (1886) [1879]. Découvertes et établissements des Francais. Vol. 6 vols. Paris.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Shea, John Gilmary (1854). History of the Catholic Missions among the Indian Tribes of the United States, 1529–1854. New York, NY: T. W. Strong/Edward Dunigan & Brother. Retrieved March 7, 2017.[page needed]
- ISBN 978-1332017836.
- Williams, Stephen (1967). "On the Location of the Historic Taensa Villages". Conference on the Historic Site Archaeology Papers. Vol. 1.